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Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads Committee on Ecological Impacts of Road Density Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology Division on Earth and Life Studies Transportation Research Board Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11535.html

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001 NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Insti- tute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance. This project was supported by Contract No. DTFH61-01-C-00036 between the National Academy of Sciences and the Department of Transportation. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for this project. Cover design by Liza R. Hamilton, National Research Council. Front photo by Anthony P. Clevenger, Montana State University. Back photos used with permission from Lance H. Gunderson, Emory University (double yellow line), Emory University Facilities Man- agement (campus), and USGS (southeastern United States). International Standard Book Number 0-309-10088-7 (Book) International Standard Book Number 0-309-65631-1 (PDF) Library of Congress Control Number 2005937774 Additional copies of this report are available from The National Academies Press 500 Fifth Street, NW Box 285 Washington, DC 20055 800-624-6242 202-334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area) http://www.nap.edu Copyright 2005 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11535.html

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences. The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Wm. A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering. The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the re- sponsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Insti- tute of Medicine. The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the Na- tional Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Wm. A. Wulf are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council. www.national-academies.org Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11535.html

Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11535.html

v COMMITTEE ON ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF ROAD DENSITY Members LANCE H. GUNDERSON (Chair), Emory University, Atlanta, GA ANTHONY P. CLEVENGER, Western Transportation Institute, Montana State University, Bozeman ADRIENNE T. COOPER, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA VIRGINIA H. DALE, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN LEONARD EVANS, Science Serving Society, Bloomfield Hills, MI GARY L. EVINK, Florida Department of Transportation (Retired), Tallahassee LENORE FAHRIG, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada KINGSLEY E. HAYNES, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA WAYNE W. KOBER, Transportation and Environmental Consulting, Dillsburg, PA STEPHEN B. LESTER, Urban Engineers, Inc., Philadelphia, PA KENT H. REDFORD, Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY MARGARET N. STRAND, Venable, LLP, Washington, DC PAUL WAGNER, Washington State Department of Transportation, Olympia J.M. (MAC) YOWELL, Kentucky Transportation Cabinet (Retired), Frankfort Staff SUZANNE VAN DRUNICK, Project Director DAVID POLICANSKY, Scholar RUTH CROSSGROVE, Senior Editor MIRSADA KARALIC-LONCAREVIC, Research Associate BRYAN P. SHIPLEY, Research Associate JOHN BROWN, Program Associate LIZA R. HAMILTON, Senior Program Assistant ALEXANDRA STUPPLE, Senior Editorial Assistant SAMMY BARDLEY, Librarian Sponsor FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11535.html

vi BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY Members JONATHAN M. SAMET (Chair), Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD RAMON ALVAREZ, Environmental Defense, Austin, TX JOHN M. BALBUS, Environmental Defense, Washington, DC THOMAS BURKE, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD DALLAS BURTRAW, Resources for the Future, Washington, DC JAMES S. BUS, Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI COSTEL D. DENSON, University of Delaware, Newark E. DONALD ELLIOTT, Willkie Farr & Gallagher LLP, Washington, DC J. PAUL GILMAN, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN SHERRI W. GOODMAN, Center for Naval Analyses, Alexandria, VA JUDITH A. GRAHAM, American Chemistry Council, Arlington, VA DANIEL S. GREENBAUM, Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA WILLIAM P. HORN, Birch, Horton, Bittner and Cherot, Washington, DC ROBERT HUGGETT, Michigan State University (emeritus), East Lansing JAMES H. JOHNSON JR., Howard University, Washington, DC JUDITH L. MEYER, University of Georgia, Athens PATRICK Y. O’BRIEN, ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Company, Richmond, CA DOROTHY E. PATTON, International Life Sciences Institute, Washington, DC STEWARD T.A. PICKETT, Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY DANNY D. REIBLE, University of Texas, Austin JOSEPH V. RODRICKS, ENVIRON International Corporation, Arlington, VA ARMISTEAD G. RUSSELL, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta ROBERT F. SAWYER, University of California, Berkeley LISA SPEER, Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, NY KIMBERLY M. THOMPSON, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge MONICA G. TURNER, University of Wisconsin, Madison MARK J. UTELL, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY CHRIS G. WHIPPLE, ENVIRON International Corporation, Emeryville, CA LAUREN ZEISE, California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland Senior Staff JAMES J. REISA, Director DAVID J. POLICANSKY, Scholar RAYMOND A. WASSEL, Senior Program Officer for Environmental Sciences and Engineering KULBIR BAKSHI, Senior Program Officer for Toxicology EILEEN N. ABT, Senior Program Officer for Risk Analysis K. JOHN HOLMES, Senior Program Officer SUSAN N.J. MARTEL, Senior Program Officer SUZANNE VAN DRUNICK, Senior Program Officer ELLEN K. MANTUS, Senior Program Officer RUTH E. CROSSGROVE, Senior Editor Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11535.html

vii TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2005 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE1 JOHN R. NJORD (Chair), Utah Department of Transportation, Salt Lake City MICHAEL D. MEYER (Vice Chair), Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta ROBERT E. SKINNER (Executive Director), Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC MICHAEL W. BEHRENS, Texas Department of Transportation, Austin ALLEN D. BIEHLER, Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, Harrisburg LARRY L. BROWN, Mississippi Department of Transportation, Jackson DEBORAH H. BUTLER, Norfolk Southern Corporation and Subsidiaries, Atlanta, GA ANNE P. CANBY, Surface Transportation Policy Project, Washington, DC JOHN L. CRAIG, Nebraska Department of Roads, Lincoln DOUGLAS G. DUNCAN, FedEx Freight, Memphis, TN NICHOLAS J. GARBER, University of Virginia, Charlottesville ANGELA GITTENS, HNTB Corporation, Miami, FL GENEVIEVE GIULIANO (Past Chair, 2003), University of Southern California, Los Angeles BERNARD S. GROSECLOSE, JR., South Carolina State Ports Authority, Charleston SUSAN HANSON, Clark University, Worcester, MA JAMES R. HERTWIG, CSX Intermodal, Jacksonville, FL GLORIA J. JEFF, Michigan Department of Transportation, Lansing ADIB K. KANAFANI, University of California, Berkeley HERBERT S. LEVINSON, Herbert S. Levinson Transportation Consultant, New Haven, CT SUE MCNEIL, University of Delaware, Newark MICHAEL MORRIS, North Central Texas Council of Governments, Arlington CAROL A. MURRAY, New Hampshire Department of Transportation, Concord MICHAEL S. TOWNES (Past Chair, 2004), Hampton Roads Transit, VA C. MICHAEL WALTON, University of Texas, Austin LINDA S. WATSON, LYNX–Central Florida Regional Transportation Authority, Orlando MARION C. BLAKEY (ex officio), Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC JOSEPH H. BOARDMAN (ex officio), Federal Railroad Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC REBECCA M. BREWSTER (ex officio), American Transportation Research Institute, Smyrna, GA GEORGE BUGLIARELLO (ex officio), Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, NY Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, DC J. RICHARD CAPKA (ex officio), Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC THOMAS H. COLLINS (ex officio), Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, DC JAMES J. EBERHARDT (ex officio), U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC JACQUELINE GLASSMAN, (ex officio), National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC EDWARD R. HAMBERGER (ex officio), Association of American Railroads, Washington, DC 1 As of March 2005. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11535.html

viii DAVID B. HORNER (ex officio), Federal Transit Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC JOHN C. HORSLEY (ex officio), American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC JOHN E. JAMIAN (ex officio), Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC EDWARD JOHNSON (ex officio), Applied Science Directorate, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, John C. Stennis Space Center, MS ASHOK G. KAVEESHWAR (ex officio), Research and Innovative Technology Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC BRIGHAM MCCOWN (ex officio), Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington DC WILLIAM W. MILLAR (ex officio) (Past Chair, 1992), American Public Transportation Association, Washington, DC SUZANNE RUDZINSKI (ex officio), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC ANNETTE M. SANDBERG (ex officio), Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC JEFFREY N. SHANE (ex officio), U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC CARL A. STROCK (ex officio), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11535.html

ix OTHER REPORTS OF THE BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY Superfund and Mining Megasites—Lessons from the Coeur d’Alene River Basin (2005) Health Implications of Perchlorate Ingestion (2005) Air Quality Management in the United States (2004) Endangered and Threatened Species of the Platte River (2004) Atlantic Salmon in Maine (2004) Endangered and Threatened Fishes in the Klamath River Basin (2004) Cumulative Environmental Effects of Alaska North Slope Oil and Gas Development (2003) Estimating the Public Health Benefits of Proposed Air Pollution Regulations (2002) Biosolids Applied to Land: Advancing Standards and Practices (2002) The Airliner Cabin Environment and Health of Passengers and Crew (2002) Arsenic in Drinking Water: 2001 Update (2001) Evaluating Vehicle Emissions Inspection and Maintenance Programs (2001) Compensating for Wetland Losses Under the Clean Water Act (2001) A Risk-Management Strategy for PCB-Contaminated Sediments (2001) Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals (4 volumes, 2000- 2004) Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury (2000) Strengthening Science at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2000) Scientific Frontiers in Developmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment (2000) Ecological Indicators for the Nation (2000) Waste Incineration and Public Health (1999) Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment (1999) Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter (4 volumes, 1998-2004) The National Research Council’s Committee on Toxicology: The First 50 Years (1997) Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet (1996) Upstream: Salmon and Society in the Pacific Northwest (1996) Science and the Endangered Species Act (1995) Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries (1995) Biologic Markers (5 volumes, 1989-1995) Review of EPA's Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (3 volumes, 1994- 1995) Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment (1994) Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children (1993) Dolphins and the Tuna Industry (1992) Science and the National Parks (1992) Human Exposure Assessment for Airborne Pollutants (1991) Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution (1991) Decline of the Sea Turtles (1990) Copies of these reports may be ordered from the National Academies Press (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 www.nap.edu Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11535.html

x OTHER REPORTS OF THE TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD Predicting Air Quality Effects of Traffic-Flow Improvements: Final Report and User's Guide (2005) Energy and Environment Concerns 2004 (2004) Short-Term Monitoring for Compliance with Air Quality Standards (2004) Travel Matters: Mitigating Climate Change with Sustainable Surface Transportation (2003) Environmental Law and Transportation (2003) Sustainability and Environmental Concerns in Transportation 2003 (2003) Energy, Air Quality, and Fuels 2003 (2003) Environmental Information Management and Decision Support System—Implementation Handbook (2003) Strategies for Increasing the Effectiveness of Commuter Benefits (2003) Guideline for Selecting Compensatory Wetlands Mitigation Options (2003) Interactions Between Roadways and Wildlife Ecology (2002) Assessing the Impact of Bridge Deck Runoff Contaminates in Receiving Waters (2002) Mitigating Transportation’s Ecological Impacts (2002) Surface Transportation Environmental Research: A Long-Term Strategy (2002) A Process for Setting, Managing, and Monitoring Environmental Windows for Dredging Projects (2002) Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program: Assessing 10 Years of Experience (2002) Energy, Air Quality, and Fuels 2002 (2002) Environmental Research Needs in Transportation: Report of a Conference, Washington, D.C., March 21-23, 2002 (2002) Sustainability and Environmental Concerns in Transportation 2003 (2002) Environmental Performance of Tanker Designs in Collision and Grounding: Method for Comparison (2001) Toward A Sustainable Future: Addressing the Long-Term Effects of Motor Vehicle Transportation on Climate and Ecology (1997) Expanding Metropolitan Highways: Implications for Air Quality and Energy Use— Special Report 245 (1995) Copies of these and other TRB reports may be ordered from the Transportation Research Board (202) 334-3213 TRB Bookstore (www.TRB.org/bookstore) TRBSales@nas.edu Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11535.html

xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are grateful for the generous support provided by U.S. Depart- ment of Transportation and are especially grateful for the outstanding assistance provided by Dr. Paul Garrett. Many people assisted the com- mittee and National Research Council by providing data and reports. We are grateful for the information and support provided by the following: Marina Alberti, University of Washington David Andersen, Washington State Office of Community Trade and Economic Development Fred Bank, Federal Highway Administration Paul Barten, University of Massachusetts William I. Boarman, U.S. Geological Survey Ray Bransfield, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Todd D. Carlson, Washington State Department of Transportation Laurie W. Carr, TerraSystems Research Kristan Majors Chilcoat, Emory University Scott Dawson, California Department of Fish and Game Robert Fuerstenberg, King County Department of Natural Resources and Parks Margot J. Griswold, Earthworks Construction & Design Howard Haemmerle, King County Department of Transportation Eugene S. Helfman, University of Georgia Art Homrighausen, LSA Associates, Inc. Geary Hund, California State Parks Robert A. James, California Department of Transportation John Kusler, Association of State Wetland Managers Gino Lucchetti, King County Department of Natural Resources Gary McVoy, New York State Department of Transportation Ivan Miller, Puget Sound Regional Council William Ruediger, U.S. Forest Service Mark Shaffer, Doris Duke Foundation Emily Tibbott, The Nature Conservancy Benjamin Tuggle, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Sylvia Vega, California Department of Transportation Paul A. Waddel, University of Washington Michael White, Conservation Biology Institute Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11535.html

Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11535.html

xiii Acknowledgment of Review Participants This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its pub- lished report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets in- stitutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confi- dential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report: Frank W. Davis, University of California, Santa Barbara Andras Fekete, The RBA Group Richard T.T. Forman, Harvard University Kevin E. Heanue, Consultant Arnold M. Howitt, Harvard University Herbert S. Levinson, Consultant Judith L. Meyer, University of Georgia Helen Mountford, Consultant G. Scott Rutherford, University of Washington William H. Schlesinger, Duke University Kumares C. Sinha, Purdue University B.L. Turner II, Clark University Susan L. Ustin, University of California, Davis Patricia White, Defenders of Wildlife Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11535.html

xiv Acknowledgments Although the reviewers listed above have provided many construc- tive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the con- clusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the re- port before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Wil- liam L. Chameides, Georgia Institute of Technology Gordon Orians, University of Washington (Emeritus) and Lester A. Hoel, University of Virginia. Appointed by the National Research Council, they were re- sponsible for making certain that an independent examination of this re- port was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11535.html