ICES Journal of Marine Science, 56: 1024–1032. 1999
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In South Africa, as fisheries management continues to move through a transformation
process, it is confronted with a myriad of uncertain scenarios which have the potentialto jeopardize its objectives. One such situation, which has proved to be threatening to
the sustainable utilization of marine resources, is illegal exploitation. In recent years,
South Africa has witnessed an increase in poaching activities, with a particular
emphasis on the lucrative abalone industry. This fishery has existed successfully for
almost 50 years, with an average annual catch in the past 10 years of 615 tonnes.
Dramatic cuts in the total allowable catch since late 1996, with up to 90% reductions
in key areas, have placed the long-term sustainability of the fishery in question. A
criminological study of abalone poaching in a community where both the legal and
illegal industries are centred has clearly illustrated both the severity and the complexity
of the problem. Negative ramifications have spread through several spheres, incorpo-
rating environmental, social, economic, and political dynamics. From the perspective
of the community, where poaching is rife, this study highlights the impact poaching
has had on a local level, representing significant obstacles for successful fisheries
management. The de-legitimization of regulations, the mistrust and corruption of
authorities, the bitter and often violent conflict between resource users and the
increased fear within the community exacerbate the challenges for cooperative
management structures. Although there has been a historic reliance on law enforce-
ment and crime control to address the problem of illegal exploitation, it has been
recognized that a shift in governance needs to take place. However, such a shift will
require extreme measures that consider the broad issues discussed above.

1999 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea
Key words: abalone, co-management, poaching, South Africa.
Received 30 October 1998; accepted 13 May 1999.
M. Hauck: Institute of Criminology, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch
7701, South Africa. Tel: +27 21 650 2680; fax +27 21 650 3790; e-mail:
mhauck@protem.uct.ac.za. N. Sweijd: Department of Zoology, University of Cape
Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa. Tel: +27 21 650 3632; fax +27 21
650 3301; e-mail: nsweijd@botzoo.uct.ac.za
Introduction
The abalone industry in South Africa has been reliant on
a single commercially exploited species, Haliotis midae,
although a second species, H. spadicea, is also fished
recreationally. Up until the early 1990s, the fishery was
almost totally commercial, but with a small recreational
component. Subsequently, abalone farming has been
initiated in South Africa (Genade et al., 1988; Cook,
1990, 1998). The sector represents a capital investment
of some R70 million (US$11.7 million in 1999), with 12
abalone farms and one experimental ranching operation
Currently, the abalone fishery is based on a zone
system with a total allowable catch (TAC) distributed
among each of the eight zones. The most intensively
fished areas have traditionally been zones A-D (Fig. 1),
with zone C located adjacent to the coastal community
of Hawston.
The history of the fishing sector is complex (Tarr,
1992; Stander, 1995). Briefly, regulation of the industry
was introduced in 1970 prior to which no limit on the
harvest of abalone was in place (Fig. 2). In 1983 a whole
mass quota system was introduced and the harvest
remained relatively stable at around 650 t. This was theArticle No. jmsc.1999.0534, available online at http://www.idea
A case study of abalone poachin
on fisheries management
M. Hauck, and N. A. Sweijd
Hauck, M., and Sweijd, N. A. 1999. A case study of abalone poa
and its impact on fisheries management. – ICES Journal of
1024–1032.spread widely along the South African coast (Sweijd
et al., 1998).
1054–3139/99/061024+09 $30.00/0rary.com on
in South Africa and its impact
ing in South Africa
arine Science, 56:case until the 1996/1997 season, when a downward
adjustment to 550 t was made to compensate for

1999 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea

While the abalone fishery is among the smallest in
South Africa with respect to yield, it is the most lucrative
potential strategies to prevent resource decimation. The
1025A case study of abalone poaching in South Africain terms of unit value (Stuttaford, 1997). In 1999, live
unshucked abalone fetched some R192 (US$32.00) per
kg whole mass in the Far East (which translates to
approximately R580 per kg for the meat). Although the
value varies according to the type of processing, the
fishery has a minimum annual gross value of around
R70 million and employs some 300 people directly
(D. Van Rensburg, Abalone Packers Association, pers.
comm.). Recent reductions in the TAC of around 100
tonnes represent a loss of at least R13 million to the
fishing industry. The high value of abalone, together
with the fact that it lives in the shallow intertidal, makes
it a prime target for illegal exploitation.
With poaching activity continuing unabated in South
Africa, important questions and challenges are raised in
regard to fisheries management. Alternative methods of
regulation need to be considered, and these have to be
embedded in the socio-political context of South Africa
and explore the international shift taking place in
fisheries management. For example, methods such as
co-management, which endorse shared management
responsibility between resource users and the state, are
being investigated in favour of top-down management
strategies. Here, we attempt to explore the extent to
which poaching activity threatens the transition to joint
fisheries management. By investigating the case study of
abalone poaching in South Africa, it is possible to begin
to explore the possible obstacles this activity poses to
sustainable resource utilization and the inclusion of
users in management processes.
Methodology
A criminological study was conducted in 1995 and
centred on the coastal community of Hawston situated
some 130 km east of Cape Town (Fig. 1). The com-
munity was identified for the study because of its
concentration of both legal and illegal divers exploiting
the abalone resource. Although it is not the only
location where poaching of marine life in South Africa
occurs, controversy around the issue has centred there.over-exploitation (Stuttaford, 1997). This adjustment
was effected primarily in zone C, where the TAC was cut
by 90% (Fig. 3).
In terms of the regulations of the fishing sector, divers
(who have exclusive rights) are permitted to use surface
air supply to fish abalone and, since 1984, a select group
of divers has been allocated (disputed) catch entitle-
ments. They are required to sell their catch to those
processing companies that hold separate processing and
export permits (Tarr, 1992).Violent confrontations between members of the com-
munity and the police in 1993 led to controversialmethodology for the study involved two years of qualita-
tive interviewing, observing, and interacting with resi-
dents of the community, including two months of
extensive residential fieldwork. The findings are presented
in an analysis of poaching, the impact on the resource
and the socio-economic and political ramifications.
Resultsdiscussions about the causes of over-exploitation andAnalysis of poaching
Poaching is one of four distinct forms of exploitation
that impact on the abalone fishery. The other three
sectors are recreational, subsistence, and commercial.
Poaching refers to any activity which contravenes indus-
try regulations outlined in the Marine Living Resources
Act of 1998 (Anon., 1998a). The various infringements
range from diving in restricted areas to exceeding the
daily catch limit (Anon., 1998a). The latter violation can
refer to a minor offence that involves an excess of one or
two animals by recreational divers. However, it can also
refer to a more serious offence that involves in excess of
several hundred kilogrammes by highly organized
poaching syndicates (South African Police Service,
1997). It is this latter group of new participants in the
industry that attracts the greatest controversy and high-
lights the problematic issues involved in regulating
marine resources. This ‘‘informal sector’’ encompasses
the people who exploit the abalone resource as a means
of supplying the growing black market (Hauck, 1997).18°W
34°S Cape Town
Hawston
Zone D
Zone
C
Zone
B
Zone A
10 km
200 km
Cape Town
South
Africa
False Bay
Figure 1. Location of Hawston and abalone fishing zones A–D
on the South African coast.The involvement of syndicates in supporting the high
demand for abalone products in the Far East has