Introduction Cortisol (C) and testosterone (T) and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) have been recommended as good markers of training stress [12,14,28]. Indeed, the balance between catabolic (C) and anabolic hormones (T,DHEA) may have important implications for performance and recovery processes. However,it is mainly T/C ratio that has been used by researchers in training and over- training investigations,as reviewed by Fry and Kraemer and Ur- hausen et al. [15,32]. In swimming,data concerning C and T responses to performance are conflicting. Mujika et al. [28] found that increases in T/C ratio were positively correlated with improvement in swimming per- formance. As well,Bonifazi et al. [1] observed decreases in C con- comitant with performance improvements while T did not change. In contrast,Kirwan et al. [22] and Hakkinen et al. [17] found increases in C while performance did not change. Hooper et al. and Mackinnon et al. [21,26] observed that overreached swimmers exhibiting performance decrements between 1.1 to 6.5% presented no significantly different C and T values when compared to well-trained swimmers. Hooper et al. [20] found that changes in C and T over a 2-week taper period could not pre- dict the changes in performance. Data concerning C and T responses to training are also conflict- ing. Indeed,Mujika et al. [28] found that the T/C ratio was nega- tively related with the weekly distance swum. Costill et al. [3] re- ported a significant increase in C and a decline in T when dou- bling the distance swum per day. In contrast,the T/C ratio was not influenced by changes in training volume,intensity [13] or dry-land training [31]. Finally,Gilian et al. [16] found that the hormonal responses to training were different for female and male swimmers: when distance swum per day increased by 50%,C was higher in the females and lower in the males,T was lower in the males while it did not change in the females. Cortisol, DHEA, Performance and Training in Elite Swimmers J.-C. Chatard1 D. Atlaoui1 G. Lac2 M. Duclos3 S. Hooper4 L. Mackinnon4 Affiliation 1 Laboratoire de Physiologie,GIP Exercice,Facult�� de M��decine Jean Monnet,Saint-Etienne,France 2 Laboratoire de la Performance Motrice,UFR STAPS,Universit�� Blaise Pascal,Clermont-Ferrand,France 3 Laboratoire Neurog��n��tique et Stress,Universit�� Bordeaux II,France 4 School of Human Movement Studies,The University of Queensland,Brisbane,Australia Correspondence Dr. J.-C. Chatard �� Laboratoire de Physiologie �� Pavillon 12,St-JB �� 42 055 Saint-Etienne cedex 2 �� France �� Fax: +33 (477) 127229 �� E-Mail: chatard@univ-st-etienne.fr Accepted after revision: March 20,2002 Bibliography Int J Sports Med 2002 23: 510���515 # Georg Thieme Verlag Stuttgart �� New York �� ISSN 0172-4622 Abstract Salivary cortisol (C) and DHEA concentrations were measured in 9 elite swimmers (4 female and 5male) over a 37-week period,5 to 12 times per swimmer,before 68 competitions. For female and male swimmers,no significant relationship was found between C,DHEA and performance. For the whole group,C was negatively correlated with week number of training (r = ���0.31,p 0.01). The incorporation of the cumulated distance swum as a second vari- able in the regression increased r to 0.56 (p 0.01). The higher the cumulated distance swum,the higher C. No significant rela- tionship was found between DHEA and distance swum. For indi- vidual swimmers,3 of 4 females showed a significant negative relationship between C and cumulated dry-land training. No equivalent relationship was found for DHEA. The 2 males practi- cing dry-land training showed a significant and negative rela- tionship between DHEA and cumulated dry-land training. No equivalent relationship was found for C. Thus,C and DHEA were not good predictors of swimming performance. C for individual females,and DHEA for individual males were considered useful markers for dry-land training stress. Key words Exercise �� hormones �� training �� taper �� testosterone Training & Testing 510 Downloaded by: Loughborough University. Copyrighted material.

In swimming,few data are available on DHEA or DHEA/C respon- ses to performance and training. As for T/C ratio,altered DHEA/C ratio may change the anabolic/catabolic balance. Indeed,DHEA��� s action mode involves its transformation in active sex steroids (T and estrogens) promoting overall anabolic effects in several tis- sues [25]. Therefore,the aim of this study was to investigate whether there was a relationship between C,DHEA,swimming performance and training load (distance swum and dry-land training) in elite female and male swimmers. Hormonal salivary measurements were used instead of blood samples to avoid the stress of the venepuncture (which can lead to a false stress-induced increase in plasma C concentration). They were also shown to be highly reproducible for sportsmen [23]. In the present study,salivary C and DHEA measurements were made repeatedly,between 5 to 12 times per swimmer,over a 37 week-period in an attempt to provide information on the long-term individual reaction to the training load. Indeed,in the studies cited above,data were ob- tained from few blood samples (between 2 and 7) and reported for groups of swimmers not individuals. It is possible that indi- vidual differences between hormones,performance and swim- ming training may obscure any relationship when only group data are presented. Methods The study was conducted during a normal competition and training season over a 37-week period,between August 1998 and March 1999 (Australian spring-summer). After being in- formed of the nature of the study,swimmers gave their written consent to participate in this study,which was approved by The University of Queensland Biomedical Research Ethical Review Committee. Subjects were free to withdraw from the study at any time. Subjects Nine competitive swimmers (4 female and 5male),age range 15���20 years (mean �� SD age = 18 �� 2.4 years height 1.76 �� 0.10 m weight 68 �� 11 kg),with a competitive background in swimming over 5���13 years (mean �� SD = 8 �� 3.5 years) were selected. Seven subjects were ranked in the fastest 3 Australian times at age group or open national championships in the pre- vious year. They were all 100m or 200m specialists in different strokes. Training Swimmers trained in a 50m outdoor swimming pool during the entire 37-week period,following their normal swimming pro- gram,in their usual environment,under the direction of their coaches. They kept daily logs of distance swum (km) and dry- land work time (min). The weekly distance swum (km �� week-1), weekly dry-land work (min �� week-1),cumulated distance swum (km) and cumulated dry-land work (min) were then computed for each week over the 37 weeks. All 4 females,but only 2 of the males practised regular dry-land training. It was composed of stretching exercise,circuit work including medicine ball exerci- ses,jumps,step ups,sit ups,skipping,weights sessions,and some cycling and running. Testing procedures Swimmers were tested the day of the competition (5 to 12 times for each swimmer) during the 37-week period (Fig.1). A total of 68 competitions were studied for the 9 swimmers. Competitions had different importance,some were preceded by a taper period and some were not. The performance was expressed in percent- age of the best previous season performance. A decrease of the Fig. 1 Average distance swum per week and dry land training for the 37-week peri- od. Arrows represent competitions dates. Chatard JC et al. Cortisol, DHEA in Swimmers��� Int J Sports Med 2002 23: 510���515 Training & Testing 511 Downloaded by: Loughborough University. Copyrighted material.