Digital Game-Based Learning in high school Computer Science education: Impact on educational effectiveness and student motivation Marina Papastergiou * Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Thessaly, Karyes, 42100 Trikala, Greece a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 7 September 2007 Received in revised form 10 June 2008 Accepted 11 June 2008 Keywords: Interactive learning environments Multimedia/hypermedia systems Applications in subject areas Secondary education Gender studies a b s t r a c t The aim of this study was to assess the learning effectiveness and motivational appeal of a computer game for learning computer memory concepts, which was designed according to the curricular objectives and the subject matter of the Greek high school Computer Science (CS) curriculum, as compared to a sim- ilar application, encompassing identical learning objectives and content but lacking the gaming aspect. The study also investigated potential gender differences in the game���s learning effectiveness and motiva- tional appeal. The sample was 88 students, who were randomly assigned to two groups, one of which used the gaming application (Group A, N = 47) and the other one the non-gaming one (Group B, N = 41). A Computer Memory Knowledge Test (CMKT) was used as the pretest and posttest. Students were also observed during the interventions. Furthermore, after the interventions, students��� views on the application they had used were elicited through a feedback questionnaire. Data analyses showed that the gaming approach was both more effective in promoting students��� knowledge of computer memory concepts and more motivational than the non-gaming approach. Despite boys��� greater involvement with, liking of and experience in computer gaming, and their greater initial computer memory knowledge, the learning gains that boys and girls achieved through the use of the game did not differ significantly, and the game was found to be equally motivational for boys and girls. The results suggest that within high school CS, educational computer games can be exploited as effective and motivational learning environ- ments, regardless of students��� gender. �� 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Computer games (henceforth called ���games���) have become an integral part of our social and cultural environment (Oblinger, 2004), and are particularly appealing to children and adolescents, for whom they constitute the most popular computer activity in the home (Downes, 1999 Harris, 1999 Mumtaz, 2001). A study on 7���16 years old students in the UK showed that most of them were regular domestic game players (McFarlane, Sparrowhawk, & Heald, 2002), whereas a more recent study (Papastergiou & Solomonidou, 2005) indicated that one of the main reasons for domestic internet use among Greek students aged 12���16 years old was online gaming. Games, thus, play a central role in young people���s lives outside school holding a special fascination and provoking a deep sense of engagement in them (Facer, 2003 Kafai, 2001 Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2004). Essential game characteristics that contribute to this engagement are challenge, fantasy and curiosity (Malone, 1980). Young people���s intrinsic motivation towards games contrasts with their often noted lack of interest in curricular contents (Prensky, 2003). In fact, the challenging world of games shapes students��� cognitive abilities and expectations about learning, making scholastic con- tent and practices seem tedious and meaningless (Facer, 2003 Prensky, 2003), and creating a dissonance between formal education and the digital, informal learning environments that students experience outside school (Downes, 1999 Mumtaz, 2001 Oblinger, 2004). How- ever, the motivation of games could be combined with curricular contents into what Prensky (2003) calls ���Digital Game-Based Learning��� (DGBL). Games that encompass educational objectives and subject matter are believed to hold the potential to render learning of academic subjects more learner-centered, easier, more enjoyable, more interesting, and, thus, more effective (Kafai, 2001 Malone, 1980 Prensky, 2001). Specifically, games constitute potentially powerful learning environments for a number of reasons (Oblinger, 2004): (a) they can support multi-sensory, active, experiential, problem-based learning, (b) they favour activation of prior knowledge given that players must use previously learned information in order to advance, (c) they provide immediate feedback enabling players to test hypotheses and learn 0360-1315/$ - see front matter �� 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.06.004 * Tel.: +30 2431 0 47069 fax: +30 2431 0 47042. E-mail address: mpapas@uth.gr Computers & Education 52 (2009) 1���12 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Computers & Education journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu

from their actions, (d) they encompass opportunities for self-assessment through the mechanisms of scoring and reaching different levels, and (e) they increasingly become social environments involving communities of players. Apart from knowledge acquisition, game playing can also favour the development of various skills, such as critical thinking and problem-solving skills (e.g. McFarlane et al., 2002). For all those reasons, Prensky���s (2001) assertion that game design methods and techniques should inform the design of educational software to be used in schools is increasingly gaining acceptance within the educational technology research community (Kirriemuir, 2002). However, as pointed out by certain authors (Facer, 2003 Kafai, 2001 Kirriemuir, 2002 Kirriemuir, McFarlane, 2004) and indicated by the following overview of prior empirical research, although games are believed to be motivational and educationally effective, the empir- ical evidence to support this assumption is still limited and contradictory, particularly regarding the effectiveness of games for concrete educational purposes, given that prior studies have focused more on motivational aspects than on curricular content aspects and core aca- demic benefits. In an overview of the instructional gaming literature, Randel, Morris, Wetzel, and Whitehill (1992) found that the reported results were equivocal regarding the differences between games and traditional teaching methods, with 38 studies reporting no differ- ences, 27 studies favouring games and 3 studies favouring traditional methods. In a subsequent overview, Dempsey, Lucassen, and Rasmus- sen (1996) pointed out that in many studies specific learning outcomes were ignored. More recently, certain research projects, namely TEEM (���Teachers Evaluating Educational Multimedia���, http://www.teem.org.uk/) and CGE (���Computer Games in Education���, http://part- ners.becta.org.uk/index.php?section=rh&rid=13595), investigated the use of commercial games in schools, producing positive benefits mainly regarding skills development and motivation, whereas curricular-specific learning outcomes were rarely mentioned (Facer, 2003 Kirriemuir, 2002). Other studies and projects focused on games specifically designed for educational purposes, addressing their moti- vational impact, and, in certain cases, learning effectiveness. The E-GEMS (���Electronic Games for Education in Math and Science���, http:// www.cs.ubc.ca/nest/egems/) project demonstrated that games increased children���s motivation and academic achievement within mathe- matics and science education in grades 4���8 (Klawe, 1999). Nevertheless, the use of a language and mathematics game by students aged 8��� 12 years old revealed that many students were unable to articulate the underlying mathematical concepts (Young & Upitis, 1999). In an- other study, Yu, Chang, Liu, and Chan (2002) report on the use of a game for high school English, focusing on students��� preferences and satisfaction from the learning experience. Rosas et al. (2003) found that the use of games on portable devices led to improved motivation and learning outcomes compared to traditional teaching within primary school mathematics and reading, whereas a pilot evaluation of a mobile DGBL environment on animal behavior with children aged 11���12 years old showed that they were enthusiastic about the experi- ence (Facer et al., 2004). Finally, Virvou, Katsionis, and Manos (2005) compared a virtual reality game to educational software lacking the gaming aspect, within primary school geography, reporting that the game was very motivating and that it helped the students retain or improve their knowledge. Another issue is whether DGBL can be motivational and effective for all students. In particular, given that games have been traditionally considered a male-dominated domain (Cassell & Jenkins, 1998), both in terms of content (e.g. many games comprise combat and reflect gender stereotypes) and centrality in males��� and females��� lives (Facer, 2003), an interesting question is whether DGBL is equally appealing and effective for boys and girls. Prior research on domestic computer use has shown that games are more popular with boys, who are more frequent, intensive and experienced game players than girls, and more likely to participate in players��� communities for the exchange of game-related resources (Cassell & Jenkins, 1998 Downes, 1999 Facer, 2003 Harris, 1999 Mumtaz, 2001). Consequently, boys develop greater familiarity with computing hardware and software, and greater computer confidence and ability (Cassell & Jenkins, 1998 Downes, 1999 Papastergiou, 2008). Prior empirical research on gender issues in the educational use of games is limited and has so far revealed important gender differences in students��� gaming practices and preferences, and equivocal findings regarding the impact of gender on the learning effectiveness of DGBL. Specifically, within the TEEM project, boys and girls preferred different kinds of games and also, boys played more games and for longer periods than girls (McFarlane et al., 2002). Within the E-GEMS project, boys and girls also showed different preferences towards the games used, and different levels of performance with boys making faster progress, although no significant gender differences were found in terms of achievement in the embedded subject matter (Klawe, 1999). However, in the study by Young and Upitis (1999), also commented in De Jean, Upitis, Koch, and Young (1999), although more girls than boys demonstrated interest in the game appreciating its female protagonist, more boys than girls concentrated on completing the game, developed strategies to share information, and successfully recognized the embedded mathematics. The afore-presented overview of prior empirical research indicates several issues that need to be further investigated. Firstly, given the limited and equivocal prior findings on the learning effectiveness of DGBL, further empirical research within school settings is needed into the impact of DGBL on students, not only in terms of motivation, but also in terms of learning outcomes in relation to concrete curricular objectives within specific subject areas. Secondly, the majority of prior studies concern traditional, well-established scholastic disciplines (e.g. mathematics). The researcher���s bibliographical searches concerning Computer Science (CS), her area of inter- est and a relatively new scholastic discipline, revealed a lack of empirical evidence on the learning of CS concepts through instructional gaming within school settings. Specifically, the prior studies found (e.g. Duplantis, MacGregor, Klawe, & Ng, 2002 Prayaga, 2005 Wer- ner, Campe, & Denner, 2005) concerned learning of computer programming, and, hence, involved school students in programming games instead of learning through interacting with them. The use of DGBL for the learning of various CS concepts, which differs from the learning of practical programming skills, thus, warrants a field investigation. Thirdly, the greater part of prior research focuses on children, whereas the impact of DGBL on students during the critical time of adolescence has been less explored. Further research is needed especially concerning high school level, where the question of keeping students motivated in the learning process and main- taining their scholastic competence becomes more acute (Hagborg, 1992). Fourthly, most prior studies that include control groups compare DGBL to traditional teaching. However, such comparisons with human tutoring imply that games are meant to totally replace classroom practice instead of complementing it (Virvou et al., 2005). Furthermore, new modes of learning based on Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) have emerged in recent years and become increasingly used in schools. It should, thus, be inves- tigated whether DGBL is motivational and effective with students not only compared to traditional educational practices, but also com- pared to those modes. Finally, as girls increasingly use games (Prensky, 2003), further investigation of gender differences in the motivational impact and mainly the learning effectiveness of DGBL is needed, within various social and cultural contexts, given that the few recent empirical studies that have addressed the issue yielded contradictory findings, and were based only within the British and North American contexts. 2 M. Papastergiou / Computers & Education 52 (2009) 1���12