Cover design by: Michael Rutkowski www.josseybass.com RESEARCH METHODS/EVALUATION Research Methods for Everyday Life is a fresh and engaging introduction to the process of social research and the variet y of r esearch methods , highlighting quantitativ e and qualitativ e methods and ho w t o combine them. Taking readers step-by-step through each stage of the research process, the text includes many oppor tunities f or prac ticing essential sk ills, such as sampling , naturalistic obser vation, sur vey collection, coding, analysis, and report writing. Coverage of quantitative methods includes measurement, correlational desig ns, basic experimental desig ns, and advanced experimental desig ns. C overage of qualitative methods includes desig n and analy sis, ethnog raphy, and f ocus g roup int erviewing. The authors cover sampling t echniques, how to choose a r esearch design, and ho w to determine research questions that inf orm public opinion and dir ect future studies. The book also c overs disseminating of research ��� ndings through writing and public presentations. Authors VanderStoep and Johnston enrich their text with illustrative examples from actual research that reinforce a clear understanding of social science research. Praise for Research Methods for Everyday Life ���Anyone who has tried to integrate both qualitative and quantitative methodology in a research methods course will be g rateful that ther e is ��� nally a t extbook that does this���and does it w ell, g iven the combination of strengths of the two authors, VanderStoep and Johnston. I have been waiting for a book like this, especially with such interesting and fresh examples from real research that will likely inspire and engage my students.��� ���Barbara Hofer, PhD, associate professor, Psychology, Middlebury College Scott W. VanderStoep, associat e pr ofessor in the Depar tment of P sychology, Hope C ollege, Holland , Michigan, is the former director of the Carl Frost Center for Social Science Research at Hope College. He is the coauthor of Learning to Learn: The Skill and Will of College Success and editor of Science and the Soul: Christian Faith and Psychological Research. Deirdre D. Johnston, professor in the Department of Communications, Hope College, Holland, Michigan, and is the author of The Art and Science of Persuasion. Blending Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches Blending Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches S COT T W. VA N D E R S TO E P A N D D E I R D R E D. J O H N S TO N VANDERSTOEP ��� JOHNSTON

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RESEARCH METHODS FOR EVERYDAY LIFE Blending Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches S C O T T W. VA N D E R S T O E P D E I R D R E D . J O H N S T O N ffirs.indd iii ffirs.indd iii 10/21/08 3:24:22 PM 10/21/08 3:24:22 PM

Copyright �� 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by Jossey-Bass A Wiley Imprint 989 Market Street, San Francisco, CA 94103���www.josseybass.com No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600, or online at www.copyright.com. Requests to the publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax 201-748-6008, or online at www.wiley. com/go/permissions. Readers should be aware that Internet Web sites offered as citations or sources for further information may have changed or disappeared since time this was written. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or com- pleteness of the contents of this book and specifi cally disclaim any implied warranties of merchantabil- ity or fi tness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situ- ation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profi t or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Jossey-Bass books and products are available through most bookstores. To contact Jossey-Bass directly call our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 956-7739, outside the United States at (317) 572-3986, or via fax at (317) 572-4002. Jossey-Bass also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data VanderStoep, Scott W. Research methods for everyday life : blending qualitative and quantitative approaches / Scott W. VanderStoep, Deirdre D. Johnston. p. cm. ISBN 978-0-470-34353-1 (alk. paper) 1. Social sciences���Research���Methodology. 2. Psychology���Research���Methodology. 3. Qualitative research. 4. Social sciences���Research���Statistical methods. 5. Psychometrics. I. Johnston, Deirdre D. II. Title. H62.V323 2008 001.4'2���dc22 2008037380 Printed in the United States of America FIRST EDITION PB Printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ffirs.indd iv ffirs.indd iv 10/21/08 3:24:22 PM 10/21/08 3:24:22 PM

TABLE OF CONTENTS About the Authors xiii Preface xv Introduction xvii CHAPTER 1 UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH 1 The Research Process 3 Types of Research 7 Research Proposals 10 Research Ethics 12 Getting Acquainted with SPSS 20 Summary 23 Key Terms 24 CHAPTER 2 THE WHO, HOW, AND WHY OF RESEARCH 25 Who: Selecting a Sample 26 How: Selecting a Research Strategy 35 Why: Doing Research That Makes a Difference 43 Summary 44 Key Terms 45 CHAPTER 3 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: MEASUREMENT AND 47 DATA COLLECTION Measurement: Turning Abstractions into Variables 48 Characteristics of Good Measures 59 Collecting Data 66 Summary 72 Key Terms 72 ftoc.indd v ftoc.indd v 10/22/08 12:24:05 PM 10/22/08 12:24:05 PM

CHAPTER 4 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: DESCRIPTIVE AND 75 CORRELATIONAL DESIGNS Basic Concepts 76 Causation and Prediction 77 Data Gathering 79 Data Analysis 92 Summary 103 Key Terms 104 CHAPTER 5 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: BASIC 105 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS Experimental Validity 105 Types of Variables 106 Characteristics of Experiments 110 Types of Experimental Designs 120 Data Analysis 121 Summary 129 Key Terms 129 CHAPTER 6 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: 131 ADVANCED EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS Basic Concepts 132 Repeated-Measures Designs 136 Complex Designs 141 Quasi-Experimental Designs 146 Data Analysis 150 Summary 161 Key Terms 162 CHAPTER 7 WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? 163 Telling a Story . . . Qualitatively 163 Two Worldviews on Research: Reality and Knowledge 165 Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research 166 Critique of Quantitative Research 171 Crisis of Representation 178 vi Contents ftoc.indd vi ftoc.indd vi 10/22/08 12:24:06 PM 10/22/08 12:24:06 PM

Summary 179 Key Terms 180 CHAPTER 8 PLANNING YOUR QUALITATIVE STUDY: DESIGN, 181 SAMPLING, AND DATA ANALYSIS Designing Qualitative Research 183 Summary 196 Key Terms 197 CHAPTER 9 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS: ETHNOGRAPHY, 199 PHENOMENOLOGY, CASE STUDY, TEXTUAL ANALYSIS, AND APPLIED RESEARCH Ethnography 200 Phenomenology 206 Case Study 209 Textual Analysis 210 Applied Research Methods: Action and Evaluation Research 215 Summary 218 Key Terms 219 CHAPTER 10 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TOOLS: INTERVIEWING, 221 FOCUS GROUPS, AND OBSERVATION The First Tool: Defi ning the Context 222 Qualitative Research Tools: How to Collect Data 224 Summary 242 Key Terms 242 CHAPTER 11 PRESENTING YOUR RESEARCH FINDINGS 245 Presenting Your Research with a Poster 246 Presenting Your Research in an Oral Presentation 247 Presenting Your Research in a Paper 250 Reducing Bias in Research Reporting 259 Summary 261 Key Terms 261 Contents vii ftoc.indd vii ftoc.indd vii 10/22/08 12:24:06 PM 10/22/08 12:24:06 PM

References 263 Appendix A A Sample Manuscript from a Quantitative Study 269 Appendix B A Sample Manuscript from a Qualitative Study 283 Glossary 301 Index 315 viii Contents ftoc.indd viii ftoc.indd viii 10/22/08 12:24:06 PM 10/22/08 12:24:06 PM

LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, AND EXHIBITS CHAPTER 1 Table 1.1 Elements of a Good Proposal 11 Figure 1.1 Classic Research Process Model 3 Figure 1.2 Quantitative versus Qualitative Research 7 Figure 1.3 SPSS Screen Showing Labels 22 Exhibit 1.1 Informed Consent Document 13 Exhibit 1.2 Debriefi ng Letter from Researchers Sent to Interviewees 17 CHAPTER 2 Table 2.1 Margin of Error as a Function of Sample Size 31 Table 2.2 Benefi ts and Drawbacks of Various Research Designs 43 Figure 2.1 Selecting a Simple Random Sample 30 Figure 2.2 Generating Random Numbers Using SPSS 34 Figure 2.3 Data from a Repeated Independent Samples Study 42 Exhibit 2.1 Selecting a Systematic Sample 33 CHAPTER 3 Table 3.1 Types of Data 49 Table 3.2a Frequency Distribution of Nominal Data (One Variable) 49 Table 3.2b Cross-Tabulation of Nominal Data (Two Variables) 49 Table 3.3a Frequency Distribution of Ordinal Data 52 Table 3.3b Cross-Tabulation of Ordinal Data with a Nominal Variable 52 Table 3.4 Data-Collection Methods 66 Figure 3.1 Simple Scatterplot Screen in SPSS 55 Figure 3.2 Simple Scatterplot 56 Figure 3.3 Creating a Bar Graph in SPSS 58 Figure 3.4 Reliability Analysis Screen in SPSS 64 ftoc.indd ix ftoc.indd ix 10/22/08 12:24:07 PM 10/22/08 12:24:07 PM

CHAPTER 4 Table 4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Options for 89 Administering Surveys Table 4.2 Summary of Type I and Type II Errors 96 Figure 4.1 A Scatterplot of a Positive Correlation 76 Figure 4.2 A Scatterplot of a Negative Correlation 77 Figure 4.3 Descriptive Statistics of Test Anxiety Scores for Students in 94 ���Science and Technology in Everyday Life��� Class Figure 4.4 Frequency Distribution of Test Anxiety Scores for Students in 95 ���Science and Technology in Everyday Life��� Class Figure 4.5 Bivariate Correlations Screen in SPSS 98 Figure 4.6 Pearson Correlation Coeffi cients Using SPSS 99 Figure 4.7 Cross-tabulations and Chi-Square Statistics Using SPSS 100 Figure 4.8 Crosstabs Screen in SPSS 103 CHAPTER 5 Figure 5.1 Conducting an ANOVA in SPSS 126 CHAPTER 6 Table 6.1 Results of a Complex Design with Two Independent Variables 133 Table 6.2 Interaction Effects in a 2 2 Complex Design 133 Table 6.3a Example of a Latin Square Design with Three Levels of the 138 Repeated-Measures Variable Table 6.3b Example of a Latin Square Design with Four Levels of the 139 Repeated-Measures Variable Table 6.4 Example of All-Possible-Orders Counterbalancing 139 Table 6.5 Interaction Effects in a Mixed Design 144 Figure 6.1 Selected Statistical Output from a Two-Way ANOVA 156 Figure 6.2 Two-Way ANOVA with Signifi cant Interaction 158 Figure 6.3 Estimated Marginal Means of MEASURE_1 161 CHAPTER 7 Table 7.1 Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches 167 to Research Figure 7.1 Sophie Calle���s Exhibition at the Venice Biennale, Venice, Italy, 172 July 2007 x List of Tables, Figures, and Exhibits ftoc.indd x ftoc.indd x 10/22/08 12:24:07 PM 10/22/08 12:24:07 PM

CHAPTER 9 Table 9.1 A Comparison of Qualitative Characteristics of Research 201 Figure 9.1 Diagram of Family Communications Patterns 205 Figure 9.2 Diagram of Family Communication Patterns 205 Exhibit 9.1 An Example of a Transcript for a Conversation Analysis 214 CHAPTER 10 Table 10.1 Closed- vs. Open-Ended Questions 229 Table 10.2 Multiple- vs. Single-Issue Questions 230 Exhibit 10.1 Avoid ���Why?��� Questions 230 CHAPTER 11 Table 11.1 Statistical Designations for Reporting Analyses in Tables and 254 Results Sections Exhibit 11.1 Guidelines for PowerPoint Presentations 249 Exhibit 11.2 Citation Format for APA Style 256 List of Tables, Figures, and Exhibits xi ftoc.indd xi ftoc.indd xi 10/22/08 12:24:07 PM 10/22/08 12:24:07 PM

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS SCOTT W. VANDERSTOEP is Professor of Psychology, Chair of the Psychology Department, and Director of Academic Assessment at Hope College, Holland, Michigan. He has a PhD in education and psychology from the University of Michigan. He is pub- lished extensively in the area of college student learning and thinking. His recent research appears in Teaching of Psychology, Encyclopedia of Classroom Learning, and Journal of Educational Psychology . He is the author (with Paul Pintrich) of Learning to Learn: The Skill and Will of College Success , published by Prentice - Hall (2008), and the editor of Science and the Soul: Christian Faith and Psychological Research , published by University Press of America (2003). His current research focuses on the development of psychological profi les of young athletes who suffer from overuse injuries. He teaches courses in develop- mental psychology, psychology and religion, and advanced data analysis. DEIRDRE D. JOHNSTON is Professor of Communication and Chair of the Communi- cation Department at Hope College, Holland, Michigan. She has a PhD in communication studies from the University of Iowa. She is published extensively in the area of work - family research and was nominated for the 2005 and 2007 Rosabeth Moss Kanter Award for Excellence in Work - Family Research. Her most recent research appears in Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, Mass Communication and Society, Human Communication Research, and Sociological Focus . She is the author of The Art and Science of Persuasion, published by McGraw - Hill, and is currently working on a book entitled Global Communi- cation Ethics: An Exploration of Nonviolent Communication and Sustained Dialogue in Cross - Cultural Engagement . She teaches courses in research methods, communication theory, intercultural and gender communication, and persuasion. fbetw.indd xiii fbetw.indd xiii 10/21/08 3:31:02 PM 10/21/08 3:31:02 PM

To our children Amy, Mark, & Alli Ellie & Anneka fbetw.indd xiv fbetw.indd xiv 10/21/08 3:31:02 PM 10/21/08 3:31:02 PM