A comparison of the restorative effect of a natural environment with that of a simulated natural environment Anette Kjellgren*, Hanne Buhrkall Human Performance Laboratory, Karlstad University, Sweden a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Available online 4 February 2010 Keywords: Restorative environments Altered states of consciousness Restoration Stress Energy a b s t r a c t This study aimed to compare the restorative effects of 30 min relaxation in a natural environment with an indoor simulation of the same natural environment. A repeated-measure design was carried out and 18 participants suffering from stress and/or burnout syndrome were counterbalanced into the two conditions. Both physiological measures and psychological instruments were applied. Further, qualitative descriptions of experiences were obtained. A phenomenological analysis of the qualitative data resulted in six categories for the natural environment: Intensified sensory perception A feeling of harmony and union with nature Well-being and quality of life Renewed energy and awakening ������Here-and-now������ thinking and A sense of tranquillity, while for the simulated natural environment, there were five categories: Restlessness and anxiety Lack of concentration A sense of being cut off from nature���s sensory input A longing to be in ���real��� nature and Positive emotions. The natural environment yielded a significantly higher rating of degree of altered states of consciousness (ASC) and energy than the simulated natural environment. The results suggest that both environments facilitated stress reduction, with the natural environment additionally bringing increased energy and ASC, thus possibly enhancing and promoting restoration. �� 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Stress-related illnesses such as burnout syndrome, fatigue, depression and stress-related illnesses have increased in number and frequencyinrecentdecadesinwesternsocieties(e.g.,Ekman&Arnetz, 2005 Folkow, 2005). To improve health and well-being, research on different relaxation techniques such as yoga, meditation and flotation tank therapy has been performed (e.g., Bood, 2007 Kjellgren, Bood, Axelsson, Norlander, & Saatcioglu, 2007). Research on restorative environments and psychological restoration could complement present efforts towards preventing stress-related illnesses. The present study contributes to the literature on restorative environ- ments by comparing restoration in a natural environment with restoration in a simulation of the same natural environment, and by considering alteration of states of consciousness as an outcome of environmental experience potentially relevant for restoration. 1.1. Restoration and restorative environments A restorative environment is one which can help to restore depleted emotional and functional resources and capabilities. The assumption that recovery from stress takes place in the absence of stressors is a simplification of the recovery process. Some envi- ronments may facilitate restoration more completely than others (Hartig, 2005). Two prominent frameworks coexist (Hartig, Book, �� �� Garvill, Olsson, & Garling, �� 1996). One framework focuses on diminished psycho-physiological stress in relation to restoration in the natural environment (Ulrich, 1983 Ulrich et al., 1991), and the other involves a cognitive framework concerned with recovery from directed attention fatigue (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989 Kaplan, 1995). Ulrich (1983) (Ulrich et al., 1991) focuses mainly on the visual perception of the environments in his psycho-evolutionary theory. Surroundings with depth, complexity, structure, and water, support behaviours relevant to an individual���s well being. Humans have an evolutionary, aesthetic preference for the natural environment. Visiting visually pleasant surroundings contributes towards reducing stress by restricting negative thoughts and eliciting positive emotions, as well as enhancing parasympathetic nervous system activity. Attention Restoration Theory (ART) (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989 Kaplan, 1995) includes a cognitive framework concerned with recovery from directed attention fatigue. In urban settings and modern society, directed attention is an important resource for coping with various demands. However, directed attention is assumed to depend on an inhibitory mechanism that is subject to * Corresponding author. Department of Psychology, Karlstad University, SE-651 88 Karlstad, Sweden. Tel.: ��46 54 700 21 73 fax: ��46 54 700 14 60. E-mail address: anette.kjellgren@kau.se (A. Kjellgren). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Environmental Psychology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep 0272-4944/$ ��� see front matter �� 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.01.011 Journal of Environmental Psychology 30 (2010) 464���472

fatigue. Directed attention fatigue may result in negative corollaries somehow similar to certain deficits in the frontal lobe diminished helping behaviour, inability to plan, and failure to recognize inter- personal cues. ART suggests that persons suffering from directed attention fatigue will be restored faster by fascination. This refers to an effortless type of attention, drawn by stimuli that are fascinating in themselves, that do not require any mental resources, and are reasonably complex and coherent. The assumption of these frameworks is that natural environ- ments appear to offer a restorative advantage in comparison to urban environments (e.g., Grahn & Stigsdotter, 2003 Hartig et al., 1996 Ulrich et al., 1991). 1.2. Natural vs. simulated vs. urban environments Several studies have explored the difference in restoration between simulated natural and simulated urban environments and have found that the simulated natural environment engendered generally more positive emotional self-reports, faster recovery from stress, and better recovery from directed attention fatigue than did the simulated urban environment (e.g., Berto, 2005 Hartig et al.,1996 Laumann, Garling, �� & Stormark, 2003 Ulrich et al.,1991). Some studies on the restorative effect of natural environments have brought participants to visit a natural environment (e.g., Hartig, Mang, & Evans,1991), others have investigated the effects of looking at natural environment through a window (e.g., Ulrich, 1984) and found positive therapeutic effects, and others have been performed in laboratories assuming ���experimental isomor- phism���, in other words, assuming that exposure to a simulated natural environment will result in similar restorative outcomes to exposure to an actual natural environment (de Kort, Meijnders, Sponselee, & Ijsselsteijn, 2006). Hence, the implicit assumption might have been that exposure to a simulated natural environment (slides, photographs or videos) is a satisfactory substitute for an actual natural environment. However, it might be speculated (according to Kaplan���s ART) that a simulated natural environment might require more directed attention in order to focus on the simulation and exclude distracting sceneries than would an authentic natural environment the former is less complete in natural scenery and might therefore be assumed to provide less effortless fascination. 1.3. Relaxation and altered states of consciousness The Human Performance Group (HPG) at Karlstad University, Sweden has performed studies using relaxation in flotation tanks as an efficient method for treating chronic stress-related pain, burn- out, depression and other stress-related disorders (e.g., Bood, 2007 Kjellgren, 2003 Kjellgren, Sundequist, Sundholm, Norlander, & Archer, 2004). In addition to the therapeutic effects of relaxation per se in the flotation tank observed during these studies, the altered states of consciousness (ASC) elicited during treatment in the flotation tank seem to contribute to an improved sense of well-being. ASC, in general terms, are states of reality that are separate from an individual���s normal day-to-day reality. They are characterised, among other things, by alterations in cognition and perception, changes in emotional expression, a sense of the ineffable, feelings of rejuvenation, and enhancements in quality of life (e.g., Kjellgren, 2003 Lawlis, 1996 Tart, 1972). An ASC is associated with a cogni- tive shift in favour of primary process oriented cognition i.e., logical thinking and directed attention (secondary process) are pushed aside by more intuitive thinking, creativity, and non- directed fantasy (primary process) (Martindale, 1975, 1990 Norlander, Kjellgren, & Archer, 2003). Fischer (1971) describes a variety of mental states (i.e. tranquil, relaxed, aroused, hyper- aroused, and ecstatic) that will elicit an altered state in the present study, however, we focus on relaxation techniques that might induce a mildly altered state (more like day-dreaming or imagery). Individuals most in need of relaxation techniques are often those who find it most difficult to initiate relaxation exercises this complicates the use of various relaxation techniques (Maslach, 1998 Norlander, 1997). We wanted to investigate the extent to which the individuals most in need of relaxation (e.g., those suffering from stress and/or ������burnout syndrome������) would respond to and appreciate relaxing in a natural environment and in a simulated natural environment. No explicit assumption has been found in terms of a natural environment���s ability or a simulated natural environment���s ability to elicit an ASC, despite an extensive search in the literature. However, attempts have been made to bring together a full range of human experiences, including self-transcendence and ���mystical��� states of consciousness into the discourse of restorative environ- ments (e.g., Davis, 1998). Since ASC during relaxation (based on our own earlier research) seems to be of importance contributing to beneficial effects of relaxation, we wanted to introduce this concept in connection with research with restorative environments. We wanted to investigate the role of ASC in restorative envi- ronments. A qualitative measure was included in order to obtain a more complete understanding of thoughts and emotional expe- riences. Further, we wanted to shed light on whether or not exposure to a simulated natural environment will result in similar restorative outcomes and experiences as exposure to an actual natural environment. To the best of our knowledge, no one has yet carried out a similar comparison. We did not have any specified hypothesis or preconceptions regarding differences in the effects resulting from relaxation in the two different conditions. 1.4. Purpose The aim of the present study was to compare the restorative effects of relaxation in a natural environment with those of relax- ation in a simulated natural environment, in terms of some psychological and physiological measures, and to obtain qualitative descriptions of experiences gained while relaxing in each envi- ronment. We also wanted to evaluate the ability of natural and simulated natural environments to induce ASC. 2. Method 2.1. Participants A sample of 65 people was randomly selected from the waiting list for flotation tank therapy at the stress clinic of the Human Performance Laboratories, Karlstad University (Sweden). The participants had been diagnosed, either according to their own statements or according to a physician���s diagnosis, as suffering from stress and/or burnout syndrome. The participants received infor- mation about the study by mail and were given the opportunity to take part in the present study by responding to a letter of interest within a two-week deadline. A total of 11 letters were returned to sender due to unknown address. Of the remaining 54, a total of n �� 18 agreed to participate in the experiment. The gender distri- bution amongst the participants was 14 female (78%) and 4 male (22%) with the mean age being 36.83 years (SD �� 12.46). This distribution of 78% female corresponds to the gender distribution of the waiting list and to our previous studies on stress and burnout syndrome (Bood, 2007). The participants were counterbalanced into conditions to control for order effect equal numbers of men A. Kjellgren, H. Buhrkall / Journal of Environmental Psychology 30 (2010) 464���472 465