Competitive Elite Golf
A Review of the Relationships between Playing Results,
Technique and Physique
John Hellstro¨m
School of Health and Medical Sciences, O¨rebro University, O¨rebro, Sweden
Contents
Abstract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
1. Playing Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
1.1 Total Score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
1.2 Partial Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
1.2.1 Putting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
1.2.2 Short Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
1.2.3 Long Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
1.2.4 Shot by Shot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
1.3 Ball Displacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
2. Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
2.1 Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
2.2 Clubface, Clubhead and Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
2.2.1 Clubface Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
2.2.2 Clubhead Velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
2.2.3 Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
2.3 Hands on the Shaft, Wrists and Arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
2.3.1 Pull and Centripetal Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
2.3.2 Force Couple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
2.3.3 Wrist Torque Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
2.3.4 Work Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
2.4 Torso, Legs and Feet on the Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
2.4.1 Ground Reaction Force and Centre of Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
2.4.2 X-Factor and Stretch-Shortening Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
2.4.3 The Kinematic and Kinetic Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
3. Physique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
3.1 Elite Players’ Physique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
3.2 Physique, Clubhead Speed and Ball Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
4. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
Abstract Elite golfers commonly use fitness and technical training to become more
competitive. The aim of this paper was to review the literature regarding the
relationships between elite golfers’ playing results, technique and physique.
The competitive outcome is a direct function of the score. The three golf
statistical measures that show the strongest correlations to scoring average
are greens in regulation (GIR), scrambling, and putts per GIR. However,
REVIEWARTICLE Sports Med 2009; 39 (9): 723-7410112-1642/09/0009-0723/$49.95/0
ª 2009 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.

more detailed game statistics are needed where the distances to the targets are
known before and after the strokes.
Players affect ball displacement by controlling clubhead velocity and
clubface angle during club and ball impact. X-factor studies have produced
ambiguous results, possibly caused by different definitions of upper torso,
rotation and top of backswing. Higher clubhead speed is generally associated
with larger spinal rotation and shoulder girdle protraction at the top of the
backswing. It is also associated with higher ground reaction forces and tor-
ques, a bottom-up and sequential increase of body segment angular velocities,
a rapid increase of spinal rotation and a late adduction of the wrists during
the downswing. Players can increase the clubhead speed generated by a
swinging motion by actively adding a force couple. Wrist, elbow and shoul-
der force couple strategies should be differentiated when investigating the
technique.
Physical parameters such as anthropometrics, strength and flexibility are
associated with skill level and clubhead speed. Current studies have in-
vestigated the linear correlation between arm and shaft lengths and clubhead
speed, but a quadratic relationship may be stronger due to changes in
moment of inertia. Fitness training can increase and perhaps decrease the
clubhead speed and striking distance, depending on training methods and the
player’s fitness and level of skill. Future studies may focus on individual
training needs and the relationship between physique, execution and its
relation to accuracy of impact and ball displacement.
Competition is extremely tough in world-class
sports, forcing athletes to continuously find
means of improving their performance. It is
therefore important for both athletes and experts
to help them to gather relevant information and
accurately assess strengths and weaknesses before
making interventions.[1] Golf coaches, fitness
trainers and other experts help elite players to-
ward lower scores. Research may help them to
achieve that goal more effectively. The purpose of
this paper is therefore to review the research
concerning elite golfers (i.e. professionals and
amateurs with a handicap of <5) relevant to the
competitive outcome, with focus on playing re-
sults, technique and physique. One review article,
44 original research articles, 28 proceedings from
the World Scientific Congress of Golf, two other
conference proceedings, 14 books and ten dis-
sertations were reviewed. The databases searched
were PubMed, SPORTDiscus and ProQuest,
with the key words ‘golf’ and ‘elite’ or ‘profes-
sional’. Additional manual searches were made
through article reference lists. For the purpose of
this review, all swing-related activity refers to a
right-handed golf swing.
1. Playing Results
1.1 Total Score
The total number of strokes taken is the ulti-
mate measure of performance when evaluating
professional golfers. There are ongoing attempts
on most professional tours to measure the play-
ers’ game. Several variables are used, such as
ranking points, money earned, top finishes and
scores. Several statistical studies have used earn-
ings[2-9] or scoring average[2,4,5,9-12] as the depen-
dent variable to examine the relative importance
of various parts of the game such as driving ac-
curacy, greens in regulation, sand saves and putts
per round.
Various ranking systems such as top finishes
only give the relative performance compared with
the results of the other competitors, and these are
based on an arbitrary figure. Top finishes give
724 Hellstro¨m
ª 2009 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2009; 39 (9)