Liquidity, not risk, is the major factor determining stock returns
Available from
Michael Whittaker's profile on Mendeley.
Page 1
Liquidity, not risk, is the major factor determining stock returns
Liquidity,
not
risk,
is
the
major
factor
determining
stock
returns
Is
Beta
misleading
and
largely
irrelevant?
Michael
Whittaker
(mwhittak@campus.upb.de)
333.150
|
PS
Corporate
Finance
|
Laurie
Conway
|
WS
2010/2011
Institute
of
Banking
and
Finance
|
University
of
Graz
January
14th
2011
Page 2
Contents
1
Introduction
........................................................................................................................................................
1
2
Price
movement
as
sole
risk
measurement
...........................................................................................
2
The
capital
asset
pricing
model
(CAPM)
..........................................................................................................
3
Use
of
the
CAPM
in
business
and
financial
industry
...................................................................................
3
3
Sources
of
illiquidity
and
how
liquidity
affects
returns
...................................................................
4
Transaction
costs
.......................................................................................................................................................
4
Private
information
as
a
source
of
illiquidity
................................................................................................
4
Inventory
risk
as
a
source
of
illiquidity
............................................................................................................
5
Search
friction,
bargaining
and
trading
limits
...............................................................................................
5
4
The
liquidity-‐adjusted
capital
asset
pricing
model
(LCAPM)
........................................................
5
5
Empirical
evidence
and
the
importance
of
the
different
determinants
of
return
................
7
6
Conclusion
............................................................................................................................................................
7
7
References
.............................................................................................................................................................
i
Page 3
1
1 Introduction
The
return
of
an
investment,
e.g.
a
stock
or
another
security,
is
highly
correlated
with
its
risk.
The
higher
the
risk
of
an
investment,
the
more
return
an
investor
should
expect
as
a
risk
premium
(Brealey
and
Myers
2003,
153-‐155).
The
amount
of
risk1
is
usually
described
and
measured
solely
by
the
historical
price
movement
of
an
asset,
i.e.
by
the
variance,
CAPM-‐Beta
or
other
statistical
values
concerning
the
asset
price
development2.
However,
next
to
the
risk
in
price
volatility
one
can
think
of
many
other
sources
of
risk
for
an
investment;
one
type
is
the
uncertainty
of
liquidity.
“Liquidity
is
the
ease
of
trading
a
security”
(Amihud,
Mendelson
and
Pedersen
2005),
i.e.
how
costly
it
is
for
or
how
much
time
is
needed
for
by
investor
in
order
to
buy
–
in
order
to
invest
–
or
sell
–
in
order
to
get
cash
–
a
certain
security.
Some
reasons
for
illiquidity
can
be
for
example
transaction
costs,
search
friction
or
information
asymmetry3.
These
costs
could
affect
security
prices.
Traditional
models
like
the
CAPM
not
only
do
not
take
a
security’s
illiquidity
risk
into
account,
but
also
rather
assume
perfect
markets
–
next
to
other
assumptions4.
This
includes
the
absence
of
transaction,
search
costs
and
information
asymmetry
and
the
same
interest
rate
for
borrowing
and
lending.
Clearly,
this
is
not
the
case
in
reality:
Both
transaction
and
search
costs
occur
while
trading
the
majority
of
securities
and
it
also
can
be
assumed
that
market
participants
at
least
sometimes
have
access
to
private
information
others
might
not
know
about
(Amihud,
Mendelson
and
Pedersen
2005).
Lending
and
borrowing
rates
differ
in
that
“generally
borrowing
rates
are
higher
than
lending
rates”
(Brealey
and
Myers
2003,
203).
So
frictions
exist
that
are
–
how
we
will
see
later
–
correlated
with
returns
of
the
securities.
In
order
to
be
able
to
better
match
model
results
to
reality
and
to
take
in
account
different
investors’
liquidity
preferences
and
needs,
I
first
will
identify
and
then
measure
the
impact
of
different
sources
of
illiquidity
on
securities’
returns.
Later,
a
version
of
the
CAPM
that
is
liquidity-‐adjusted
will
be
presented.
In
the
last
chapter
I
will
show
empirical
evidence
about
how
well
the
model
fits
for
historic
data.
1
And
thus
the
expected
return
due
to
a
higher
demanded
risk
premium.
2
The
next
chapter
(Chapter
2)
deals
with
these
traditional
valuation
approaches
in
more
detail.
3
Chapter
3
goes
into
more
details
and
describes
several
other
sources
of
illiquidity.
4
See
for
instance
Focardi and Fabozzi (2004, 512).
Also
see
Chapter
2
for
a
short
introduction
to
CAPM.
Page 4
2
2 Price
movement
as
sole
risk
measurement
In
order
to
easier
understand
and
keep
on
the
argumentation,
the
following
will
give
a
brief
overview
about
the
relation
between
of
risk
and
return
and
introduce
you
to
a
well-‐known
model,
the
CAPM.
When
investing
in
stocks
and
other
securities
like
US
Treasury
bills,
government
or
corporate
bonds
and
funds,
it
is
obvious
that
the
money
is
not
equally
safe
invested.
Money
invested
in
a
Treasury
bill
for
example,
is
practically
safe5,
i.e.
risk-‐free,
whereas
money
invested
in
a
stock
has
a
higher
risk.
This
risk
of
a
company
stock
for
example
can
result
from
the
risk
of
defaulting,
operational
risk
or
market
risk.
Due
to
this
risk,
the
return
of
the
stock
is
more
variable
then
the
return
of
the
Treasury
bill.
In
contrast,
stock
returns
are
–
measured
over
a
longer
period
of
time
–
much
higher
than
the
returns
from
Treasury
bills6.
An
investor
with
a
certain
amount
of
money
would
not
invest
in
company
stocks,
which
have
possible
risk,
when
she
could
also
invest
in
risk-‐free
Treasury
bills,
unless
she
would
get
a
higher
return7.
This
higher
return
is
called
the
risk
premium
and
in
this
case
is
the
difference
between
the
return
rate
of
the
risk-‐free
Treasury
bills
and
the
return
rate
of
the
risky
stocks.
So
the
risk
premium
compensates
the
investor
for
a
higher
risk;
investors
expect
higher
return
rates
the
riskier
the
investment
opportunity
is.
The
risk
–
being
the
uncertainty
of
the
price
development
–
is
usually
measured
by
statistical
values
of
the
history
of
the
price
movement.
The
variance
and
the
standard
deviation
are
good
measures
for
the
volatility
of
a
security.
However,
one
cannot
judge
whether
the
volatility
is
high
or
not
if
he
does
not
know
how
the
prices
change
relative
to
the
market8.
It
is
rather
important
to
know
how
an
asset
price
–
e.g.
a
stock
–
moves
in
relation
to
the
overall
market.
This
can
be
captured
by
the
covariance
of
the
stock
with
the
market
(𝜎™?␥ , ™???? ).
5
Of
course
also
governments
can
default
–
we
saw
the
realistic
risk
of
a
defaulting
country
in
2009/2010
in
Greece.
However,
it
is
very
unlikely
for
the
US
government,
so
almost
everywhere
in
literature
it
is
assumed
that
US
Treasury
bills
are
risk-‐free.
The
interest
rate
of
the
Treasury
bills
is
therefor
called
the
risk-‐free
rate.
6
One
study
from
Ibbotson
Associates,
Inc.
from
2001
for
instance
finds
a
nominal
average
rate
of
return
of
3.9%
p.a.
for
Treasury
bills
whereas
the
S&P500
(made
out
of
common
stocks)
had
a
return
of
13.0%
p.a.
for
the
time
period
1926-‐2001
(Brealey and Myers 2003, 155).
7
Here
an
assumption
is
made
that
will
be
valid
for
the
whole
text:
Investors
act
rationally,
are
risk
averse
and
maximize
their
utility
by
maximizing
return
and
minimizing
the
risk
(e.g.,
in
form
of
variance
of
returns).
8
If
for
example
the
market
–
being
a
portfolio
of
all
available
and
tradable
assets
–
has
a
high
volatility,
then
a
similar
high
volatility
would
not
necessarily
mean
that
the
assets
bears
a
higher
risk
than
the
other
assets.
Page 5
3
Standardizing
that
measure
by
dividing
it
by
the
variance
of
the
market
is
called
“Beta
relative
to
market
portfolio
–
or,
more
simply,
beta”
(Brealey
and
Myers
2003,
177)
–
and
is
thus
defined
by:
𝛽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑣(𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡, 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑡)𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑡) 9.
Because
since
Markowitz
(1952)
we
know
that
individual
risks
can
be
eliminated
by
well-‐diversifying
investments,
the
market
risk
is
the
left
risk
factor
we
have
to
care
about.
With
that
in
mind
it
is
clear
that
Beta
measures
an
asset’s
contribution
of
risk
to
a
well-‐diversified
portfolio
and
can
assist
constructing
such
one.
The
capital
asset
pricing
model
(CAPM)
In
the
mid-‐sixties
the
Capital
Asset
Pricing
Model
was
developed
to
be
able
to
calculate
the
risk
premium
of
an
asset,
which
is
what
return
rates
investors
expect
from
a
risky
asset.
The
solution
is
simple:
The
risk
premium10
of
an
asset
is
proportional
to
the
beta
of
this
asset
multiplied
with
the
market
risk
premium11.
This
can
be
written
as:
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸 𝑟 − 𝑟™ ⌣ = 𝛽 𝑟™???? − 𝑟™ ⌣ 12 13.
So
knowing
the
beta
of
a
stock
can
be
used
to
value
and
price14
a
stock:
This
can
be
used
for
investment
decisions.
Use
of
the
CAPM
in
business
and
financial
industry
According
to
a
survey
by
Graham
and
Harvey
(2001)
more
than
70%
of
the
interviewed
Chief
Financial
Officers
use
the
CAPM
to
calculate
the
cost
of
equity
capital.
Also
the
majority
of
fund
managers
use
the
CAPM
as
a
tool
to
decide
about
to
invest
in
what
assets.
This
shows
the
importance
of
CAPM
and
beta
and
why
many
investment
9
More
practically
said,
the
beta
measures
how
much
the
price
of
an
asset
changes
in
reaction
to
a
1
%
price
change
in
the
market.
A
beta
greater
than
1
means
that
a
stock
is
very
sensitive
to
changes
in
overall
market
prices,
a
beta
smaller
than
1
means
it
is
more
insensitive.
The
market
portfolio,
and
an
asset,
which
prices
move
perfectly
correlated,
have
a
beta
of
exactly
1.
10
Measured
as
the
difference
between
the
expected
return
(r)
and
the
Treasury
bill
risk-‐free
return
(rfree).
11
Measured
as
the
long-‐time
average
of
the
difference
between
the
average
market
return
(rmarket)
and
the
Treasury
bill
risk-‐free
return
(rfree).
12
(Brealey
and
Myers
2003,
195)
13
Please,
again,
note
the
use
of
the
word
expected
returns
here.
CAPM
results
–
and
later
results
from
other
introduced
models
–
are
expectations
and
do
not
predict
the
future,
which
is
uncertain
thus
risky.
In
this
text
the
use
of
the
word
return
most
of
the
times
means
expected
return.
CAPM
assumes
that
all
investors
have
the
same
expectations.
14
E.g.,
if
the
actual
price
is
higher
then
the
result
from
the
formula,
the
asset
is
overvalued
and
vice
versa.
Page 6
4
decisions
could
possibly
be
improved
by
using
a
model
that
takes
more
factors
into
account
–
for
example
how
liquidity
is
connected
to
expected
returns15.
The
following
chapter
will
deal
with
different
sources
that
can
lead
to
illiquidity
and
will
show
how
these
sources
affect
returns.
3 Sources
of
illiquidity
and
how
liquidity
affects
returns
The
idea
behind
thinking
about
the
liquidity
of
a
stock
or
another
security
is
that
“investors
want
to
be
compensated
for
holding
a
security
that
becomes
illiquid”
(Acharya
and
Pedersen
2005).
We
will
identify
major
sources
of
illiquidity
and
investigate
how
important
they
are
in
correlation
to
returns:
Transaction
costs
Broker
fees
and
other
transaction
costs
are
the
most
obvious
form
that
can
affect
the
liquidity
and
could
change
decisions
of
investors
wanting
to
buy
or
sell
a
stock.
It
is
also
easy
to
see
a
clear
impact
on
the
returns
here,
i.e.
that
these
costs
immediately
reduce
the
return
during
the
sell.
Nearly
all
markets
for
traded
securities
have
a
form
of
direct
transaction
costs
or
fees,
thus
being
neither
frictionless
nor
perfect.
Private
information
as
a
source
of
illiquidity
Also
in
contrast
to
the
assumption
of
perfect
markets
is
that
in
reality
some
investors
might
have
access
to
more
or
better
information
about
a
security.
“This
creates
an
adverse
selection
problem:
informed
traders
with
bad
news
are
likely
to
sell,
and
informed
traders
with
good
news
have
an
incentive
to
buy”
(Amihud,
Mendelson
and
Pedersen
2005).
However,
without
an
incentive
–
meaning
a
higher
return
–
to
search
for
more
information,
there
would
be
no
new
ones.
This
information
asymmetry
is
a
form
of
illiquidity
and
could
be
part
of
an
explanation
for
the
bid-‐ask
spread.
Amihud,
Mendelson
and
Pedersen
(2005)
recite
a
model
by
Garleanu
and
Pedersen16
that
shows
how
–
under
the
assumption
that
there
are
some
professional
investors
who
more
probably
have
better
information
than
others
–
allocation
inefficiency
costs
arise.
“This
indirect
allocation
cost
[…]
increases
the
required
return”
(Amihud,
Mendelson
and
Pedersen
2005).
15
Even
though
Multi-‐Beta-‐models
/
APT-‐models
are
sometimes
used
(but
only
by
about
30%
of
the
interviewees),
liquidity
affecting
factors
like
transaction
costs
and
fees
were
taken
into
account
by
only
one
third
of
the
interviewed
CFOs
in
the
presented
study.
16
Garleanu,
N.
and
L.
H.
Pedersen.
“Adverse
selection
and
the
required
return.”
Review
of
Financial
Studies
17
(2004):
643–665.
Page 7
5
Inventory
risk
as
a
source
of
illiquidity
In
some
markets,
sellers
do
not
always
find
a
natural
buyer
and
vice
versa
because
not
every
market
participant
is
present
all
the
time.
Market
makers,
who
are
present
all
the
time,
bring
immediacy
and
enable
trading
at
any
time
the
sellers/buyers
wishes
to
trade.
For
example,
an
investor
could
sell
a
security
to
the
market
maker,
because
there
was
no
buyer
at
that
time.
The
market
maker
then
later
sells
the
security
to
somebody
willing
to
buy.
During
the
time
the
market
maker
holds
the
security,
she
has
a
high
risk
of
price
changes.
Depending
on
the
security’s
risk
and
her
capital,
the
market
maker
will
buy
securities
only
with
a
discount
to
compensate
for
the
risk.
This
also
affects
the
bid-‐ask-‐spread,
which
again
results
in
costs
for
illiquidity.
Search
friction,
bargaining
and
trading
limits
Especially
for
over-‐the-‐counter
–
or
short:
OTC
–
trading,
where
there
is
no
central
marketplace
or
dealer,
illiquidity
costs
occur
for
searching
and
negotiating
with
individual
trading
partners.
It
is
likely
that
less
liquid
securities
trade
at
lower
prices
due
to
a
liquidity
premium.
The
work
of
Amihud,
Mendelson
and
Pedersen
(2005)
references
several
studies
that
investigated
different
aspects
of
this
kind
of
illiquidity
costs.
4 The
liquidity-‐adjusted
capital
asset
pricing
model
(LCAPM)
Measuring
liquidity
and
liquidity
risk
appropriately
is
difficult.
However,
a
good
estimate
could
be
the
movement
of
the
price
in
comparison
to
the
trading
volume.
One
often-‐used
measure
therefor
is
the
ILLIQ17.
It
consists
of
the
product
of
the
daily
return
(r),
the
daily
closing
price
(p)
and
the
quantity
of
shares
traded
that
day
(VOL)
and
thus
“reflects
the
relative
price
change
that
is
induced
by
a
given
dollar
volume”
(Amihud,
Mendelson
and
Pedersen
2005):
𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐼𝑄 = |𝑟|𝑝 ∙ 𝑉𝑂𝐿
The
higher
the
ILLIQ
of
a
stock
or
another
security
the
less
liquid
it
is.
This
value
already
can
be
used
to
determine
and
compare
liquidity
of
different
stocks.
Nevertheless
–
as
I
already
noted
above
–
it
is
often
more
applicable
to
compare
individual
values
to
the
overall
market,
as
done
using
the
covariance
of
the
individual
17
Kyle,
A.S.
“Continuous
auctions
and
insider
trading.”
Econometrica
53
(1985):
1315–1335.
Page 8
6
and
the
market
return
in
CAPM-‐Beta.
This
formula
can
then
be
used
to
create
a
normalized
measure
of
illiquidity
(c),
as
done
by
Acharya
and
Pedersen
(2005).
The
authors
then
identify
three
important
forms
of
liquidity
risk:
“(i)
commonality
in
liquidity
with
the
market
liquidity,
cov(casset,
cmarket);
(ii)
return
sensitivity
to
market
liquidity,
cov(rasset,
cmarket);
and,
(iii)
liquidity
sensitivity
to
market
returns,
cov(casset,
rmarket).”
18
With
these
factors
they
derive
a
liquidity-‐adjusted
capital
asset
pricing
model
(LCAPM)
for
the
liquidity-‐adjusted
expected
return
and
introduce
three
new
beta-‐factors
𝛽??,
𝛽??
and
𝛽??
next
to
the
standard
market
𝛽,
where
all
returns
reduced
by
market
illiquidity
costs
(cmarket)
corresponding19:
𝐸 𝑟?™?⌤ − 𝑟?™?? ? ™ ⌣ = 𝐸 𝑐?™?⌤ + 𝜆 𝛽 + 𝛽?? − 𝛽?? − 𝛽?? ,
where
the
liquidity
betas
are
defined
representing
the
three
forms
noted
above
and
again
are
standardized
by
dividing
by
the
variance
of
the
illiquidity
cost
adjusted
return
rate:
𝛽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑣(𝑟?™?⌤ , 𝑟?™???? − 𝐸??? 𝑟?™???? )𝑣𝑎𝑟( ?™???? − 𝐸??? 𝑟?™???? − 𝑐?™???? − 𝐸??? 𝑐?™???? ) ,
𝛽?? = 𝑐𝑜𝑣(𝑐?™?⌤ − 𝐸??? 𝑐?™?⌤ , 𝑐?™???? − 𝐸??? 𝑐?™???? )𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝑟?™??? − 𝐸??? 𝑟?™???? − 𝑐?™???? − 𝐸??? 𝑐?™???? ) ,
𝛽?? = 𝑐𝑜𝑣(𝑟?™?⌤ , 𝑐?™???? − 𝐸??? 𝑐?™???? )𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝑟?™??? ? − 𝐸??? 𝑟?™???? − 𝑐?™???? − 𝐸??? 𝑐?™???? ) ,
𝛽?? = 𝑐𝑜𝑣(𝑐?™?⌤ −𝐸??? 𝑐?™???? , 𝑟?™???? − 𝐸??? 𝑟?™???? )𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝑟?™???? − 𝐸??? 𝑟?™???? − 𝑐?™???? − ??? 𝑐?™???? ) .
The
risk
premium
(𝜆)
is
defined
as:
𝜆 = 𝐸 𝜆? = 𝐸 𝑟?™???? − 𝑐?™???? − 𝑟 ™?? ? ™ ⌣ .
The
authors
find
that
this
model
“fares
better
than
the
standard
CAPM
in
terms
of
R2
for
cross-‐sectional
returns”
(Acharya
and
Pedersen
2005).
While
testing
against
portfolios
of
different
liquidity,
it
can
be
seen
that
illiquid
stocks
have
a
higher
volatility,
a
smaller
market
capitalization
and
a
lower
turnover.
Those
stocks
also
had
higher
liquidity
risks,
shown
by
large
𝛽??-‐factors
and
strong
negative
𝛽??s
and
𝛽??s
–
all
statistically
significant.
18
Where
c
is
the
normalized
illiquidity
cost
of
the
asset
or
the
market
portfolio
and
r
is
the
return
rate
of
the
asset
or
the
market.
19
Please
note
that
there
is
a
time
index
introduced,
where
t
stands
for
today
and
t-‐1
for
the
time
period
before.
Also
note
that
sometimes
–
as
in
the
original
work
(Acharya
and
Pedersen
2005)
–
𝛽1
is
the
market
beta
and
the
three
liquidity-‐betas
have
the
index
2
to
4.
Page 9
7
5 Empirical
evidence
and
the
importance
of
the
different
determinants
of
return
Acharya
and
Pedersen
(2005)
not
only
tested
the
model
against
US
stock
portfolios
with
different
liquidity
risks,
but
also
estimated
how
high
the
liquidity
premium
of
that
sample
is
(about
1.1%
p.a.)
and
determined
which
factors
contribute
to
that
premium.
The
results
are
that
the
most
important
type
of
liquidity
risk
is
the
correlation
between
the
stock’s
liquidity
and
the
market
return
(cov(casset,
rmarket)),
or
in
other
words:
investors
pay
a
premium
of
0.82%
“for
a
security
that
is
liquid
when
the
market
return
is
low”
(Acharya
and
Pedersen
2005).
The
part
of
the
premium
for
a
stock
having
high
returns
when
the
market
is
not
liquid
(cov(rasset,
cmarket))
only
is
0.16%
and
the
relationship
between
the
stock’s
and
market’s
liquidity
(cov(casset,
cmarket))
has
an
even
smaller
effect
(0.08%)
on
the
price.
Lee
(2011)
has
tested
Acharya
and
Pedersen’s
LCAPM
at
international
financial
markets
and
finds
for
all
the
markets
that
the
model
is
consistent20.
So,
also
on
a
global
level
the
LCAPM
better
fits
the
historical
data
and
makes
apparent
the
contribution
of
liquidity
risk
to
expected
stock
return.
This
study
also
provides
evidence
that
the
US
market
situation
is
globally
affecting
liquidity
risk.
Warkentin
(2009)
researched
how
well
of
LCAPM
fits
for
stocks
of
the
German
CDAX-‐index.
He
also
mostly
finds
the
existence
of
the
three
LCAPM-‐liquidity-‐factors.
However,
the
author
notes
that
there
was
no
period
with
a
liquidity
shock
or
low
rates
of
returns
in
his
sample21.
6 Conclusion
Without
doubts,
liquidity
influences
stock
prices:
“Stocks
that
are
more
sensitive
to
[…]
liquidity
have
substantially
higher
expected
returns”
(Pástor
and
Stambaugh
2003).
The
three
presented
empirical
studies
show
that
there
is
statistically
and
economically
significant
evidence
of
a
price
of
liquidity
for
many
kinds
of
commonly
traded
securities
in
different
countries
and
most
times
the
LCAPM
better
fits
to
historical
data
than
the
unadjusted
standard
CAPM-‐model.
20
“That
is,
a
security’s
required
rate
of
return
depends
on
the
covariance
of
its
own
liquidity
with
aggregate
local
market
liquidity,
as
well
as
the
covariance
of
its
own
liquidity
with
local
and
global
market
returns.”
(Lee
2011)
21
This
is
important
because
–
as
presented
above
–
the
illiquidity
costs
in
relation
to
the
market
situation
are
the
most
important
ones.
Page 10
8
CAPM
is
a
model
which
assumptions
the
real
world
does
not
provide.
So,
as
with
most
multi-‐beta-‐factor-‐models
it
is
possible
to
achieve
better
fitting
results
by
correcting
the
traditional
CAPM.
Nevertheless,
one
of
the
reasons
the
CAPM
and
its
beta
are
used
so
often
for
financial
decisions
would
be
that
the
information
required
to
calculate
beta
are
easily
available
–
most
financial
news
papers
and
web
sites
even
calculate
the
factor
for
the
readers
–
and
the
results
are
mostly
“good
enough”
to
work
with.
Beta
is
certainly
neither
irrelevant
nor
misleading.
Recent
research
on
liquidity
and
asset
pricing,
however,
shows
many
implications
for
investor
decisions
and
constructing
diversified
portfolios
that
it
is
time
to
realize
that
the
dimension
“less
liquid
vs.
more
liquid
is
just
as
important
as
[the
others]”
(Ibbotson
2010)
and
push
forward
more
research
and
easier
availability
of
data
regarding
liquidity
risks
for
the
industry
and
masses.
Especially
in
times
of
low
market
returns
or
low
market
liquidity,
the
effect
of
illiquidity
costs
or
a
liquidity
premium
becomes
more
important,
as
seen
for
example
during
the
recent
financial
crisis22.
22
see
for
example:
M.
Hellwig.
“Systemic
risk
in
the
financial
sector:
an
analysis
of
the
subprime-‐mortgage
financial
crisis.”
De
Economist
157
(2009):
129-‐207.
Page 11
i
7 References
Pástor,
Ľ.,
and
R.F.
Stambaugh.
“Liquidity
Risk
and
Expected
Stock
Returns.”
Journal
of
Political
Economy
(The
University
of
Chicago)
11,
no.
3
(2003):
642-‐685.
Warkentin,
A.
Einfluss
der
Wertpapierliquidität
auf
die
Wertpapierrenditen
-‐
eine
empirische
Untersuchung
am
deutschen
Aktienmarkt.
diploma
thesis.
Bayreuth,
2009.
Acharya,
V.V.,
and
L.H.
Pedersen.
“Asset
pricing
with
liquidity
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Journal
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Financial
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B.V.)
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no.
2
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2005):
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Amihud,
Y.,
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Mendelson,
and
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Pedersen.
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Asset
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Foundations
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4
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Brealey,
R.A.,
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Focardi,
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R.G.
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Tremendous
Effect
on
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Morningstar
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(9
3
2010).
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Kuan-‐Hui.
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world
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Journal
of
Financial
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2011):
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Lee,
Kuan-‐Hui.
“The
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Journal
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