A longitudinal study of changes in
learners’ cognitive states during
and following an information
literacy teaching intervention
Geoff Walton
Thompson Library, Staffordshire University, Stoke-on-Trent, UK, and
Mark Hepworth
Department of Information Science, Loughborough University,
Loughborough, UK
Abstract
Purpose – This paper seeks to identify the changes in cognition associated with becoming
information-literate, specifically, in relation to the evaluation of information. Additionally, it puts
forward a model for a teaching and learning intervention that engages the learner and leads to higher
order information literacy (IL) thinking. From a theoretical perspective the research integrates ideas
from the fields of IL, teaching and learning, e-learning and information behaviour (IB).
Design/methodology/approach – Three interventions were designed to develop the information
literacies of first-year undergraduates studying Sport and Exercise at Staffordshire University, to
teach and test IL. Interventions took a blended approach and combined face-to-face and online social
network learning (OSNL) – also referred to as social media learning (SML) – and focused on one
aspect of information literacy: the ability to evaluate source material. Data were captured via
interviews, focus groups and from the online discussion that was analysed thematically and
categorised using task, behaviour, cognitive states, affective states, cognitive states and knowledge.
This helped to evaluate the efficacy of the interventions and provided data for further analysis. This
paper focuses on the cognitive data and their transitions during the interventions and, in particular,
among those respondents who experienced OSNL.
Findings – The changing cognitive states, associated with IL learning were modelled and made
evident key cognitive states and transitions. This is represented in the paper in diagrammatic and
mathematical notation. The findings indicate the complexity of the information behaviours associated
with IL including the cognitive, behavioural, cognitive and affective elements. Although the cognitive
transitions are the focus of this paper, an insight is also given into an IL intervention that fosters the
capability to interact critically and reflectively with information. The pedagogy that underpins these
changes is indicated. The intervention, which incorporated OSNL, proved the most successful.
Research limitations/implications – Undergraduate students’ IB can be changed and IL
developed. Additional long-term data would have indicated whether this intervention had a lasting
impact on the undergraduates.
Practical implications – IL practitioners should consider incorporating OSNL and assessment in
their interventions. Incorporating discussion, reflection and peer-to-peer assessment is likely to lead to
deeper learning when teaching IL.
Originality/value – The research adds detail to the understanding of the cognitive, behavioural,
affective and cognitive states associated with IL and makes explicit how these may change, as the
learner becomes information-literate.
Keywords Behaviour, Electronic resources, Social networks, Learning, Cognition, Critical thinking
Paper type Research paper
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0022-0418.htm
Study of changes
in learners’
cognitive states
449
Received 10 November 2009
Revised 1 August 2010
Accepted 2 August 2010
Journal of Documentation
Vol. 67 No. 3, 2011
pp. 449-479
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0022-0418
DOI 10.1108/00220411111124541

Introduction
To gain an understanding and acceptance of information literacy (IL) as a fundamental
part of the learning process any learning and teaching intervention should be based on
a bedrock of learning theory and pedagogical practice. In this case Bloom et al.’s (1956)
cognitive states and constructivist approaches to learning as exemplified by
MacKeracher (2004). Developments in e-learning offer a rich seam of pedagogical
possibility important for facilitating IL learning (Salmon, 2002). Furthermore, the
expanding field of information behaviour (IB) research offers empirical insights into
how people seek out and use information, especially the model devised by Hepworth
(2004). These provide high-level frameworks within which IL can be set and indicate
factors that should be taken into account when researching IL. These theoretical
orientations have not been integrated hitherto. In this research the importance of this
nexus was recognised and drew on an existing IB framework and used this to guide
data collection and designed and implemented a series of IL interventions that were
underpinned by learning and e-learning theory. The objective was partly pragmatic i.e.
to develop an effective IL intervention that could be delivered to undergraduates within
HE drawing on the work of IL authors, such as, Andretta (2007) and IL frameworks,
such as, SCONUL (1999) and ACRL (2000). Specifically the intervention concerned
those IL skills and knowledge associated with evaluating information sources.
However, an insight was also gained into the cognitive processes and, to a lesser
extent, the affective and the cognitive state of the learner, associated with becoming
information literate over a period of time. At a theoretical level, therefore, this research
helps to make explicit the “thinking” (cognition) that relates to one particular,
fundamental, aspect of information literacy i.e. a critical approach to evaluating
sources of information.
This, in turn, led to an insight into levels of “thinking” associated with evaluation.
Being able to distinguish between different levels of thinking and cognitive changes
enables the formulation of explicit learning outcomes and the evaluation of an
intervention.
Literature review
The term Information Literacy has seen wide and varied use since its inception in 1974
(Bruce, 1995; Andretta, 2005) and it is recognised throughout the world (Andretta,
2007). The information profession has, and continues to, put forward the IL cause with
a near-missionary zeal and though neatly packaged is regarded by some as a
dangerously ambiguous concept, which is not easy to interpret or apply
(Owusu-Ansah, 2003). While there is a minority view which questions the actual
worth of IL as an educational endeavour (Wilder, 2005; Williams, 2006) a more
scholarly critique of IL is emerging, e.g. Whitworth (2007) and Markless and Streetfield
(2007). Recent research even questions whether student information behaviours can be
changed once they enter HE (UCL, 2008), whereas, in this study, significant changes
were evident. Many definitions of IL exist (Andretta, 2007), e.g. ACRL (2000), Bundy
(2004), Big Blue (2002) and SCONUL (1999) to name but a few. An emerging body of
work in IL and the workplace has recently emerged (Conroy, 2006; Lloyd, 2007;
Hepworth and Smith, 2008). There has been much debate regarding the terms
information and literacy and the arguments for and against using these
(Owusu-Ansah, 2003), whether they should be used together (Loveless and
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