OrganizationScience
Vol. 20, No. 4, July–August 2009, pp. 685–695
issn 1047-7039
eissn 1526-5455
09
2004
0685
informs ®
doi 10.1287/orsc.1090.0428
©2009 INFORMS
Organizational Ambidexterity: Balancing Exploitation
and Exploration for Sustained Performance
Sebastian Raisch
University of St. Gallen, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland, sebastian.raisch@unisg.ch
Julian Birkinshaw
London Business School, Regents Park, London NW1 4SA, United Kingdom, jbirkinshaw@london.edu
Gilbert Probst
University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland, gilbert.probst@weforum.org
Michael L. Tushman
Harvard Business School, Boston, Massachusetts 02163, mtushman@hbs.edu
O
rganizational ambidexterity has emerged as a new research paradigm in organization theory, yet several issues fun-
damental to this debate remain controversial. We explore four central tensions here: Should organizations achieve
ambidexterity through differentiation or through integration? Does ambidexterity occur at the individual or organizational
level? Must organizations take a static or dynamic perspective on ambidexterity? Finally, can ambidexterity arise internally,
or do firms have to externalize some processes? We provide an overview of the seven articles included in this special issue
and suggest several avenues for future research.
Key words : ambidexterity; change; exploitation; exploration; innovation; organization design
History : Published online in Articles in Advance June 10, 2009.
Introduction
One of the more enduring ideas in organization sci-
ence is that an organization’s long-term success depends
on its ability to exploit its current capabilities while
simultaneously exploring fundamentally new competen-
cies (Levinthal and March 1993, March 1991). Earlier
studies often regarded the trade-offs between these two
activities as insurmountable, but more recent research
describes ambidextrous organizations that are capable
of simultaneously exploiting existing competencies and
exploring new opportunities. Building upon earlier work
by Duncan (1976), Tushman and O’Reilly (1996) were
first to present a theory of organizational ambidexter-
ity. They suggest that superior performance is expected
from the ambidextrous organization and describe struc-
tural mechanisms to enable ambidexterity
In recent years, the concept of organizational ambidex-
terity has gained momentum in research on organiza-
tions. The number of studies in leading management
journals that explicitly refer to the ambidexterity con-
cept increased from less than 10 in 2004 to more than
80 today. This increasing attention has contributed to
the refinement and extension of the ambidexterity con-
cept. First, conceptual work has been complemented by
large-scale empirical studies that provide evidence of
organizational ambidexterity’s generally positive asso-
ciation with firm performance (Gibson and Birkinshaw
2004, He and Wong 2004, Lubatkin et al. 2006). Sec-
ond, the initial attention to structural antecedents has
been extended to investigations of the roles played
by contextual (Gibson and Birkinshaw 2004), informal
network (Gulati and Puranam 2009), and leadership-
based (Beckman 2006, Lubatkin et al. 2006, Smith
and Tushman 2005) antecedents of ambidexterity. Third,
studies have started to explore how environmental (Auh
and Menguc 2005, Jansen et al. 2006) and organiza-
tional moderators (Atuahene-Gima 2005, Lubatkin et al.
2006, Kyriakopoulos and Moorman 2004) affect the
interrelations between ambidexterity, its antecedents, and
performance outcomes. This body of work has been cate-
gorized and thoroughly discussed in recent review papers
(O’Reilly and Tushman 2008, Raisch and Birkinshaw
2008). Despite increasing interest in ambidexterity as
a concept, an examination of the literature indicates
that several important research issues remain unexplored,
ambiguous, or conceptually vague. We suggest there are
four closely interrelated “central tensions” that need to
be addressed to enable further progress in research on
ambidexterity.
The first tension relates to differentiation and inte-
gration as alternative or complementary pathways to
ambidexterity. Differentiation refers to the separation of
exploitative and explorative activities into distinct orga-
nizational units, whereas integration refers to the mech-
anisms that enable organizations to address exploitative
685

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686 Organization Science 20(4), pp. 685–695, © 2009 INFORMS
and explorative activities within the same organizational
unit. To date, the two approaches have often been posi-
tioned as mutually exclusive solutions; however, schol-
ars have pointed to various shortcomings inherent in
both. Further progress in this area may depend on a bet-
ter understanding of the tensions and complementarities
between the two approaches.
The second tension relates to the question of whether
ambidexterity manifests itself at the individual or
organizational level. Ambidexterity research usually
describes organizational mechanisms to enable ambidex-
terity, such as formal structures or lateral coordina-
tion mechanisms. Conversely, some studies indicate that
ambidexterity is rooted in an individual’s ability to
explore and exploit. Organizational mechanisms may be
required to enable ambidexterity at the individual level,
and ambidextrous individuals may be vital to the useful-
ness of organizational mechanisms. There is, therefore, a
need for theories that capture ambidexterity across mul-
tiple levels of analysis.
The third tension relates to static versus dynamic
perspectives on ambidexterity. Although some research
suggests that sequential attention should be paid to
exploitation and exploration, the majority of organi-
zational ambidexterity research presents a range of
solutions that enables organizations to simultaneously
pursue the two activities. These studies take a static
view of organizational behavior: Organizations become
ambidextrous by adopting certain configurations. Given
the dynamism of markets and organizations, it is impor-
tant to develop theories that combine static elements
with more dynamic perceptions of ambidexterity.
Finally, the fourth tension relates to internal ver-
sus external perspectives on ambidexterity. Research on
organizational ambidexterity has focused on how orga-
nizations address exploitation and exploration internally.
Related research on innovation and knowledge processes
stresses the importance of the external acquisition of new
knowledge for exploration. Studies on dynamic capabili-
ties describe interrelations between internal and external
knowledge processes that play an important role in cor-
porate renewal. There is a need to explore the interplay
between internal and external processes in the creation
and preservation of organizational ambidexterity.
In the remainder of this introductory article, we dis-
cuss the four central tensions in greater detail. Then we
provide an overview of the seven articles included in this
special issue and discuss their contribution to the cen-
tral research tensions described above. We conclude by
suggesting several avenues for future research.
Differentiation vs. Integration
Since Lawrence and Lorsch’s (1967) seminal work,
researchers have recognized the complementary roles
of differentiation and integration as mechanisms for
enabling organizations to deliver effective outcomes.
However, ambidexterity researchers have typically
focused on one side or the other of this duality. One
group of studies has emphasized differentiation, that is,
the subdivision of tasks into distinct organizational units
that tend to develop appropriate contexts for exploita-
tion and exploration. In this approach, the separate orga-
nizational units pursuing exploration are smaller, more
decentralized, and more flexible than those responsible
for exploitation (Benner and Tushman 2003, Christensen
1998, Tushman and O’Reilly 1996). This structural dif-
ferentiation helps ambidextrous organizations maintain
different competencies with which to address inconsis-
tent demands arising from emerging and mainstream
business opportunities (Gilbert 2005). The other group
of studies has focused on integration, that is, the behav-
ioral mechanisms that enable organizations to address
exploitation and exploration activities within the same
unit. Gibson and Birkinshaw (2004) describe how
organizations design business unit contexts to enable
employees to pursue both types of activities. Further,
Lubatkin and colleagues (2006) found that the behav-
ioral integration of top management teams facilitates the
processing of disparate demands essential to attaining
ambidexterity.
Scholars have pointed to the shortcomings inherent
in focusing too much on one side or the other of this
duality. Critics of the differentiation approach, for exam-
ple, claim that exploitation and exploration have to
be recombined to create value (Eisenhardt and Martin
2000, O’Reilly and Tushman 2008, Teece 2007). From
this perspective, the mere coexistence of exploitative
and explorative activities in differentiated organizational
units represents an important yet insufficient condition
for organizational ambidexterity (Gilbert 2006). Several
researchers have pointed to the need for top manage-
ment teams to ensure integration across differentiated
units (Tushman and O’Reilly 1996, Smith and Tushman
2005). Recently, scholars have started to suggest that
ambidextrous organizations should use lower-level inte-
gration mechanisms to stimulate the lateral knowledge
flow across units (Gilbert 2006, Raisch 2008).
Conversely, critics of the integration approach argue
that integrative contexts are constrained by individuals
taking on exploitative and explorative tasks (Bushe and
Shani 1991, Inkpen and Tsang 2005, March 1991). They
therefore rely on the same basic experiences, values, and
capabilities to carry out both tasks, which makes explor-
ing fundamentally different knowledge bases difficult.
Adler et al. (1999) suggest complementing integrated
contexts with “tactical” differentiation. They describe
how production workers switch between the two tasks
supported by “parallel” organizational structures, such
as quality circles. These structures enable people from
the same unit to move back and forth between a bureau-
cratic structure for routine tasks and an organic structure
for nonroutine tasks.

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The need to combine processes for differentiation and
integration creates a paradox that is difficult to resolve.
Managing a paradox requires “a creative way that cap-
tures both extremes” rather than a simple either/or trade-
off (Eisenhardt 2000, p. 703). However, it is still unclear
how the tensions between differentiation and integration
should be managed. Combining structural differentiation
with tactical integration bears the risk of destroying the
“pragmatic boundaries” that protect exploratory activi-
ties from being affected by the mainstream units’ inertial
forces (Carlile 2004, Westerman et al. 2006). Combining
integration with tactical differentiation requires individ-
uals to work in different “thought worlds” (Dougherty
1992, Kostova and Zaheer 1999), which is often beyond
their cognitive limits (Inkpen and Tsang 2005). There-
fore, neither solution may allow for maximizing both
exploitation and exploration. When differentiation is
combined with integration, exploitation and exploration
need to be conceptualized as two ends of a continuum
(Gupta et al. 2006). Thus the managerial task is to deter-
mine the right degree of differentiation and integration.
It is likely that the right balance between differentia-
tion and integration is dependent on the relative impor-
tance of exploitative and exploration activities (Gulati
and Puranam 2009). Because the need for exploitation
and exploration can vary across initiatives as well as
over time, managing the differentiation-integration ten-
sions is likely to be an important dynamic capability for
creating and sustaining organizational ambidexterity.
The arguments presented above can be summarized
in three observations that should be explored further.
First, integration and differentiation are complementary,
not alternative, mechanisms for achieving organizational
effectiveness. Second, the relative balance between inte-
gration and differentiation is likely to vary with the spe-
cific task or activity at hand. Third, and resulting from
the above, the tension between integration and differen-
tiation requires ongoing managerial attention.
Individual vs. Organization
Ambidexterity research has usually described organi-
zational mechanisms that enable firms to simultane-
ously address exploitation and exploration. In most of
these studies, the tensions that ambidexterity creates are
resolved at the next organizational level down (Raisch
and Birkinshaw 2008). Consequently, a business unit
may become ambidextrous by creating two functions
or subdivisions with different foci (e.g., Benner and
Tushman 2003). A manufacturing plant may become
ambidextrous by creating two different teams, one in
charge of exploration and another in charge of exploita-
tion (e.g., Adler et al. 1999), and a single team may
become ambidextrous by allocating different roles to
each individual (e.g., Jansen et al. 2008). In sum,
research has suggested that structural mechanisms are
used to enable ambidexterity, whereas most individuals
are seen as focused on either exploration or exploita-
tion activities. Some studies on structural ambidexter-
ity acknowledge that a few people at the top need to
act ambidextrously by integrating exploitative and explo-
rative activities (e.g., Smith and Tushman 2005). How-
ever, the individual dimension of ambidexterity is not
explored further.
Although studies on contextual ambidexterity describe
cultural rather than structural characteristics, they take a
similar focus on organizational mechanisms. Gibson and
Birkinshaw (2004), for example, describe business unit
contexts that enable employees to conduct both explo-
ration and exploitation activities. The important differ-
ence is that these studies assume that ambidexterity is
rooted in an individual’s ability to explore and exploit.
Similarly, Mom et al. (2007) show that some managers
simultaneously engage in high levels of exploitation and
exploration activities. In these studies, individuals are
important sources of organizational ambidexterity.
The possibility that individuals can take on both
exploitative and explorative tasks creates a number of
challenges that need to be addressed. Ambidextrous
managers must manage contradictions and conflicting
goals (Smith and Tushman 2005), engage in paradox-
ical thinking (Gibson and Birkinshaw 2004), and ful-
fill multiple roles (Floyd and Lane 2000). Amabile
(1996) suggests that individuals who focus on creativ-
ity and exploration differ even in personality, from those
who emphasize implementation or exploitation activi-
ties. Gupta et al. (2006) conclude that it is challeng-
ing for an individual to excel at both exploitation and
exploration.
What makes an individual ambidextrous? Mom and
colleagues (2007) found that the more a manager
acquires top-down and bottom-up knowledge flows, or
top-down and horizontal knowledge flows, the higher the
levels of exploration and exploitation activities this man-
ager may undertake. Several authors state that ambidex-
trous managers have both a short-term and a long-term
orientation (e.g., O’Reilly and Tushman 2004, Probst
and Raisch 2005). Although these studies observe that
some managers seem to be able to take on contradic-
tory tasks, they fail to explain why these managers—
as opposed to others—are able to do so. Answering
this question may require exploring managers’ personal
characteristics. Smith and Tushman (2005), for example,
note that the ability to engage in paradoxical thinking
may be vital for effectively managing exploitation and
exploration. Cohen and Levinthal (1990) argue that indi-
viduals need prior related knowledge to assimilate and
use new knowledge. Individuals with a breadth of prior
knowledge categories, as well as various linkages across
them, may thus be better prepared to take on both tasks.
In addition to personal characteristics, organizational
factors affect individuals’ ability to act ambidextrously.

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Ghoshal and Bartlett (1997) describe socialization,
recognition, and team-building practices to help indi-
viduals think and act ambidextrously. Gibson and
Birkinshaw (2004) present contexts that allow managers
to divide their time between alignment- and adaptability-
oriented activities. Lubatkin and colleagues (2006) note
that behavioral integration—the senior team’s wholeness
and unity of effort—can help process disparate demands.
Jansen and colleagues (2008) cite formal senior team
contingency rewards and informal senior team social
integration as important mechanisms to enable senior
teams to host contradictory forces. All these studies pro-
vide a strong indication that organizational factors have
to be considered alongside personal characteristics when
explaining individuals’ ambidexterity.
Further, personal and organizational factors may
be closely interrelated. For example, organizational
contexts that provide managers with decision-making
authority are likely to stimulate richer sense-making and
cognitive processes at the personal level. Conversely,
individuals’ ability to act ambidextrously will have a
cumulative effect on the organization’s ambidexterity.
However, organizational ambidexterity is different from
the sum of its members’ personal ambidexterity. As
described by Tushman and O’Reilly (1996), a relatively
small number of ambidextrous managers may be able
to integrate exploitative and explorative outcomes gener-
ated in different parts of the firm by individuals focused
on either exploitation or exploration. Ambidexterity is
thus likely to be a function of closely interrelated indi-
vidual and organizational effects—but in most cases
more than the sum of the individual activities.
The following observations summarize our arguments.
First, we argue that managers can exhibit (to differ-
ent degrees) personal ambidexterity by engaging in
both exploitation and exploration activities. Second, the
extent to which managers are ambidextrous varies within
and across contexts. The variance stems from both
personal characteristics and the organizational contexts
faced by the manager. Third, organizational ambidex-
terity is influenced by, but by no means limited to, its
members’ cumulative personal ambidexterity.
Static vs. Dynamic
Several scholars have suggested that firms should tem-
porarily cycle through periods of exploitation and explo-
ration (e.g., Brown and Eisenhardt 1998, Nickerson and
Zenger 2002, Siggelkow and Levinthal 2003). From
this perspective, “sequential ambidexterity” is expected
to arise from the dynamic, temporal sequencing of
routines for exploitation and exploration (Venkatraman
et al. 2007, Puranam et al. 2006). Conversely, the
majority of organizational ambidexterity research defines
ambidexterity as the simultaneous pursuit of exploita-
tion and exploration (Gupta et al. 2006, Raisch and
Birkinshaw 2008). Researchers have presented a range
of organizational solutions that enable organizations
to become ambidextrous (e.g., Gibson and Birkinshaw
2004, Tushman and O’Reilly 1996). These studies take
a static perspective: organizations become ambidextrous
by adopting certain configurations.
This conceptualization comes close to traditional con-
tingency theory and the idea of moving systems toward
an ideal system state (Ginsberg and Venkatraman 1985,
Miller and Friesen 1984). However, modern contingency
theory shows that alignment is a dynamic process rather
than a question of static configurations (Ketchen et al.
1993, Zajac et al. 2000). Organizations have to con-
tinuously reconfigure their activities to meet changing
demands in their internal and external environments
(Siggelkow 2002, Webb and Pettigrew 1999). It thus
appears unlikely that organizational configurations (not
even ambidextrous ones) could provide the exhaustive
steady-state functionality required to deal with the entire
range of boundary conditions that an organization faces
over time (Raisch 2008).
O’Reilly and Tushman (2008) argue that ambidexter-
ity can only become a dynamic capability if management
repeatedly and intentionally orchestrates firm resources.
Dynamic capabilities comprise and integrate both static
and dynamic components—the interaction of exploita-
tion and exploration is expected to become a full-blown
dynamic capability over time (Schreyögg and Kliesch-
Eberl 2007). Managing organizations for the simultane-
ous pursuit of exploitation and exploration may thus be a
task of dynamic rather than static alignment (Siggelkow
and Levinthal 2003, Westerman et al. 2006).
In terms of structural ambidexterity, it remains unclear
how structurally differentiated units evolve over time.
Based on a simulation study, Siggelkow and Levinthal
(2003) recommend temporary decentralization, in which
firms use differentiated units for exploration and then
reintegrate them. Similarly, Westerman and colleagues
(2006) describe how some differentiated units were
transitioned to more integrated designs at later stages
of the innovation life cycle. Conversely, other schol-
ars describe structurally differentiated units that remain
highly autonomous over time. Raisch (2008), for exam-
ple, notes that the premium coffee maker Nespresso
remained a fully autonomous unit within the food indus-
try leader Nestlé Group for more than two decades. A
case study of Xerox’s autonomous Palo Alto Research
Center (PARC) unit shows that although the unit
remained separate for decades, the degree of cross-
unit integration increased over time (George and Regani
2005).
In addition to changes in the relationship between
mainstream organization and differentiated units, there
may also be changes in the differentiated units them-
selves. Over time, the differentiated units’ competitive
context often evolves from the quasimonopoly position

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of a first mover to an increasingly populated and com-
petitive space. During this process, successful units sig-
nificantly increase their scale and scope. Obviously, the
altered boundary conditions force the unit to invest more
time in exploitation activities to ensure efficient opera-
tions. It can thus be speculated that structurally differen-
tiated units move from a primary orientation on explo-
ration toward a more ambidextrous (or even exploitative)
orientation over time. How these changes occur over
time remains to be explored.
Contextual ambidexterity also has a dynamic com-
ponent that has rarely been addressed. In such con-
texts, individuals make their own judgments on how to
best divide their time between the conflicting demands
for alignment and adaptability (Gibson and Birkinshaw
2004). Adler and colleagues (1999) suggest that individ-
uals’ attention to both demands may be either simultane-
ous or sequential. If the former, employees performing
routine tasks can, for example, simultaneously engage in
the nonroutine task of identifying improvement oppor-
tunities. If the latter, employees switch between the
two types of tasks rather than attempting to address
them both simultaneously. The “switching” between
tasks may allow greater focus and reduce the risk
of confusion. Despite human brains being literally
ambidextrous—handling simultaneously controlled and
automated processes (Wegner and Bargh 1998)—it nev-
ertheless appears that sequential ambidexterity is eas-
ier to achieve at the individual level than simultaneous
ambidexterity. However, the cycles with exploitative and
explorative activities are probably shorter (perhaps even
minutes or hours in length) and more tightly coupled
than those observed at the corporate level and described
in previous theories on “cycling” (e.g., Nickerson and
Zenger 2002, Puranam et al. 2006, Gulati and Puranam
2009, Siggelkow and Levinthal 2003).
The adoption of time as an important research lens
(Ancona et al. 2001) allows for a deeper exploration
of the dynamic processes underlying the emergence
of organizational ambidexterity. The specific arguments
made above can be summarized in the form of the fol-
lowing observations. First, managing for ambidexterity
is a task of dynamic rather than static alignment. Second,
different solutions, including structural and contextual
ones, may be required over time to sustain ambidexterity.
Third, ambidexterity may arise from both simultaneous
and sequential attention to exploitation and exploration.
Internal vs. External
One suggestion for resolving the paradoxical require-
ments of exploitation and exploration has been to ex-
ternalize one or another set of activities through out-
sourcing or by establishing alliances (Baden-Fuller and
Volberda 1997, Holmqvist 2004, Lavie and Rosenkopf
2006, Rothaermel and Deeds 2004). Conversely, research
on organizational ambidexterity has focused on how
organizations address exploitation and exploration inter-
nally. Benner and Tushman (2003), for example, con-
clude that the externalization of exploitation or explo-
ration processes may be harmed by the difficulties in
realizing strategic integration across independent firms.
On the other hand, research on exploration stresses
the importance of the external acquisition of new knowl-
edge. Eisenhardt and Martin (2000) describe the risk
of obsolescence when firms source all their knowledge
internally. Rosenkopf and Nerkar (2001) found empirical
evidence that exploration beyond organizational bound-
aries had more impact than exploration within orga-
nizations. Puranam and Srikanth (2007) describe the
organizational challenges faced by acquirers seeking to
renew their knowledge bases through the acquisition of
innovative firms. The discrete nature of structural inte-
gration in acquisitions appears to force a choice between
leveraging existing knowledge or the capacity for ongo-
ing innovation by the target firm.
Studies show that externally acquired knowledge may
contribute to the reconfiguration of existing knowledge
bases. Kogut and Zander (1992, p. 384) describe “com-
binative capabilities” as the firm’s ability “to synthesize
and apply current and acquired knowledge.” Similarly,
Henderson and Cockburn (1994, p. 66) define “architec-
tural competence” as “the ability to access new knowl-
edge from outside the boundaries of the organization
and the ability to integrate knowledge flexibly across
boundaries within the organization.” Ambidexterity is
thus likely to require both internal and external knowl-
edge processes as well as their integration across orga-
nizational boundaries.
Researchers have found that interorganizational activ-
ities, such as customer relationships (Im and Rai 2008),
corporate venturing (Hill and Birkinshaw 2008), and
strategic alliances (Lin et al. 2007, Rothaermel and
Deeds 2004), can enable both exploitative and explo-
rative knowledge processes. To access external knowl-
edge, these studies suggest that organizations need to
establish relational contexts characterized by a broad set
of resources from other actors and the normative and
social cues these actors provide (Adler and Kwon 2002,
Nahapiet and Ghoshal 1998). Managers take on broker-
ing roles (Hargadon 2002, Hargadon and Sutton 1997)
to span organizational boundaries and to pull resources
together. At the same time, however, externally acquired
knowledge has to be absorbed and integrated to real-
ize its potential (Cohen and Levinthal 1990, Kogut and
Zander 1992).
Scholars from different research fields acknowledge
the tensions between acquiring and integrating external
knowledge. Research on absorptive capacity, for exam-
ple, argues that although internal knowledge process-
ing and external knowledge acquisition are both nec-
essary, excessive dominance by one or the other will

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be dysfunctional (Cohen and Levinthal 1990, Zahra
and George 2002). Research on organizational bound-
aries found that activities focused on the creation
and reinforcement of boundaries need to be combined
with boundary-spanning activities (Ancona and Caldwell
1992, Miller et al. 2007). Ambidexterity may thus imply
the managerial challenge of not only balancing exploita-
tion and exploration but also of integrating external and
internal knowledge.
Not much is known about how ambidextrous orga-
nizations take on these challenges. A starting point for
future investigations may be research on social networks.
Social network theory has shed light on how network
characteristics affect knowledge transfer and integration
(Hansen 1999, Obstfeld 2005). This work has recently
been extended to include the notion of ambidexterity
(e.g., Atuahene-Gima and Murray 2007, Lin et al. 2007).
Tiwana (2008), for example, found that in the context of
alliances, strong ties are required to integrate knowledge,
whereas bridging ties are needed to access diverse, novel
knowledge. Further, Tiwana (2008) proposes that strong
ties complement bridging ties in enhancing ambidexter-
ity. Tempelaar et al. (2008) found that external social
relationships enhance knowledge acquisition, whereas
internal social relationships facilitate knowledge diffu-
sion. They conclude that ambidexterity requires com-
plementary internal and external social relationships.
Ambidexterity may thus arise from complex social net-
works that balance various tensions.
We can summarize the above arguments in the follow-
ing observations. First, ambidexterity may depend on the
firm’s ability to integrate internal and external knowl-
edge bases. Second, the ability to integrate external
knowledge relies on a combination of external broker-
age and internal absorptive capacity. Third, ambidexter-
ity may be supported by social networks that contrast
internal and external as well as strong and bridging ties.
The Work in This Special Issue
In this section, we summarize the articles contributed
to this special issue and relate them to the four ten-
sions presented above. Overall, we received 61 submis-
sions. We invited authors of 16 manuscripts to revise and
resubmit, and we ultimately accepted seven manuscripts
for publication. The articles provide a variety of research
approaches: they span various levels of analysis, use dif-
ferent research contexts, and deploy alternative methods
(see Table 1).
Andriopoulos and Lewis’s (2009) article “Exploita-
tion-Exploration Tensions and Organizational Ambidex-
terity: Managing Paradoxes of Innovation” presents a
comprehensive model of the exploitation-exploration ten-
sions and their management. Based on a multiple case
study of ambidextrous firms in the product design indus-
try, the authors present three nested paradoxes of innova-
tion: strategic intent, customer orientation, and personal
drivers. Contributing to the differentiation-integration
tension, the findings reveal that firms use a mix of inte-
gration and differentiation tactics to manage exploitation-
exploration paradoxes. Blending both tactics is found to
be vital for stimulating the virtuous cycles of ambidex-
terity. Addressing the individual-organizational tension,
the study shows that the paradoxes of innovation occur at
different organizational levels. The strategic intent para-
dox operates at the firm level, whereas the customer ori-
entation paradox affects efforts within projects, and the
personal drivers paradox impacts individual knowledge
workers. They conclude that firms need to manage inno-
vation paradoxes at multiple levels and the interactions
across levels reinforce ambidextrous practices.
Taylor and Helfat’s (2009) article “Organizational
Linkages for Surviving Technological Change: Com-
plementary Assets, Middle Management, and Ambidex-
terity” states that technological innovations sometimes
require industry incumbents to shift to a completely
new core technology. The authors develop a conceptual
framework in which the ability to build and leverage
organizational linkages between the new technology and
its existing complementary assets is essential for a suc-
cessful technological transition. In this framework, orga-
nization linking mechanisms promote ambidexterity by
enabling firms to transition to a new technology while
utilizing valuable preexisting capabilities. An impor-
tant contribution to the differentiation-integration tension
is the authors’ recognition of organizational linkages
between new capabilities and the potentially valuable
preexisting complementary capabilities. Ambidextrous
management requires firms to explore new knowledge,
exploit existing knowledge, and coordinate these knowl-
edge bases. Further, the article adds to the individual-
organizational tension by describing the important role
played by middle managers in implementing organi-
zational linkages. Top management can use economic,
structural, social, and cognitive influences to enable mid-
dle managers to carry out these linking activities. Finally,
the study contributes to the static-dynamic tension by
showing that ambidexterity emerges from continuous
alignment activities throughout the multiple phases of
technological change.
Groysberg and Lee’s (2009) article “Hiring Stars and
Their Colleagues: Exploration and Exploitation in Pro-
fessional Service Firms” examines the performance of
star security analysts who join new firms in exploration
roles versus exploitation roles. They find that stars hired
for exploration roles experience an immediate decline
in performance that persists for at least five years. This
decline is most pronounced among star analysts who
move by themselves rather than with a group of col-
leagues from the originating firm. Star analysts who join
new firms in exploitation roles also exhibit a drop in
performance, but only for a year. These findings sug-
gest that even at the individual level, the probabilities

Raisch et al.: Organizational Ambidexterity
Organization Science 20(4), pp. 685–695, © 2009 INFORMS 691
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Raisch et al.: Organizational Ambidexterity
692 Organization Science 20(4), pp. 685–695, © 2009 INFORMS
of success in exploration activities are lower than in
exploitation activities, thereby reinforcing the tendency
toward exploitation. The article adds to the individual-
organizational tension by showing that individual, group,
and organizational factors affect ambidexterity. Further,
the study addresses the static-dynamic tension by distin-
guishing between the short-term and long-term effects
of exploitation and exploration. Finally, regarding the
internal-external tension, the study provides valuable
insights into the challenges related to the integration of
externally acquired capabilities and the importance of
these processes for ambidexterity.
Rothaermel and Alexandre’s (2009) article “Ambidex-
terity in Technology Sourcing: The Moderating Role of
Absorptive Capacity” maintains that a firm’s organiza-
tional and technological boundaries are two important
demarcation lines when sourcing technology. Apply-
ing an ambidexterity perspective to a firm’s technol-
ogy sourcing strategy, the authors hypothesize that there
is a curvilinear relationship between a firm’s technol-
ogy sourcing mix and its performance. Further, they
introduce a contingency element by proposing that a
firm’s absorptive capacity exerts a positive moderating
effect on this relationship. They empirically test these
hypotheses on a random, multi-industry sample of U.S.
manufacturing companies. Contributing to the internal-
external tension, the findings show that ambidexterity in
a firm’s technology sourcing strategy not only requires
the firm to address the trade-offs that arise from simul-
taneously pursuing exploration and exploitation but also
the trade-offs that arise from combining internal and
external technology sourcing. An overly strong reliance
on either internal or external sourcing is related to neg-
ative performance implications. To harness the benefits
of ambidexterity, managers have to actively manage the
spillovers from internal and external technology sourc-
ing. The ability to do so depends on the organization’s
absorptive capacity.
The Cao et al. (2009) article “Unpacking Organiza-
tional Ambidexterity: Dimensions, Contingencies, and
Synergistic Effects” observes that there is still signifi-
cant ambiguity regarding the conceptualization of orga-
nizational ambidexterity. The authors unpack the one-
dimensional ambidexterity construct into its “balance
dimension” and its “combined dimension.” The balance
dimension corresponds to a firm’s orientation toward
a relative balance between exploratory and exploitative
activities, and the combined dimension corresponds to
their combined magnitude. The authors find that over
and above the independent effects of each, concurrent
high levels of both dimensions yield synergistic benefits.
They also find that the balance dimension is more benefi-
cial to resource-constrained firms, whereas the combined
dimension is more beneficial to firms with greater access
to resources. Addressing the differentiation-integration
tension, the findings show that ambidexterity is fostered
by close interrelations between existing and new knowl-
edge. A synergistic effect can be achieved by allowing
existing resources to be more fully employed to acquire
new capabilities and also by permitting new knowledge
to be more fully integrated into the existing pool of
resources. Thus differentiation approaches need to be
combined with integrative efforts to reach ambidexter-
ity’s full potential.
The Jansen et al. (2009) article “Structural Differenti-
ation and Ambidexterity: The Mediating Role of Integra-
tion Mechanisms” claims that structural differentiation
can help ambidextrous organizations maintain multiple
inconsistent and conflicting demands; however, these dif-
ferentiated activities need to be mobilized, coordinated,
integrated, and applied. In this sense, the authors delin-
eate formal and informal senior team integration mech-
anisms, and formal and informal organizational inte-
gration mechanisms, and examine how they mediate
the relationship between structural differentiation and
ambidexterity. Addressing the differentiation-integration
tension, the findings suggest that structural differentia-
tion’s previously asserted direct effect on ambidexter-
ity operates through informal senior team and formal
organizational integration mechanisms. Integration thus
occurs not only at the top management level but also
through formal and lateral cross-unit interfaces. Adding
to the individual-organizational tension, the findings sug-
gest that integration—which depends on the hierarchical
level—occurs through either personal or formal organi-
zational mechanisms. At the corporate level, ambidex-
trous organizations encourage senior team members to
socially and informally integrate. At lower hierarchical
levels, ambidexterity is achieved through more formal
cross-functional interfaces.
The Mom et al. (2009) article “Understanding Vari-
ation in Managers’ Ambidexterity: Investigating Direct
and Interaction Effects of Formal Structural and Per-
sonal Coordination Mechanisms” states that the concep-
tual and empirical understanding of ambidexterity at the
individual level of analysis is very limited. The authors
address this gap by investigating managers’ ambidexter-
ity. Findings regarding the formal structural mechanisms
indicate that a manager’s decision-making authority
is positively related to ambidexterity. Regarding the
personal coordination mechanisms, the findings indicate
that both a manager’s participation in cross-functional
interfaces and his or her connectedness to other orga-
nization members are positively related to ambidexter-
ity. Adding to the individual-organizational tension, the
findings confirm that managers can act ambidextrously.
Further, organizational mechanisms were found to posi-
tively affect managerial ambidexterity.
These seven articles contribute to the four fundamen-
tal tensions explored above. Collectively, these studies
reinforce our four main arguments: (1) Ambidexterity

Raisch et al.: Organizational Ambidexterity
Organization Science 20(4), pp. 685–695, © 2009 INFORMS 693
requires active management of the tensions between dif-
ferentiation and integration; (2) ambidexterity results
from and manifests itself at both individual and orga-
nizational levels; (3) ambidexterity is the outcome of
a dynamic process that involves both the simultaneous
and subsequent attention to exploitation and exploration;
and (4) ambidexterity depends on the ability to integrate
internal and external knowledge bases for synergistic
benefits.
Avenues for Future Research
Based on our discussion of four central tensions inherent
in organizational ambidexterity research and the review
of the seven articles that make up this special issue,
there are several potentially fruitful avenues for future
research:
First, studies that take a longitudinal perspective of
organizational ambidexterity are scarce. Although all
seven articles in this special issue stress the need for
more dynamic perspectives of the topics under inves-
tigation, only two studies (Andriopoulos and Lewis
2009, Groysberg and Lee 2009) have a dynamic com-
ponent. We hope that these studies motivate researchers
to address questions on the dynamic processes under-
lying organizational ambidexterity. A longitudinal per-
spective brings about interesting questions related to all
four research tensions discussed above. For example,
how does the relative importance of differentiation and
integration evolve over time? What are the differences
between situations in which managers address exploita-
tion and exploration simultaneously and those situations
in which they alternate between the two tasks? Are alter-
native solutions used to enable ambidexterity at different
stages of development? Does the external search for new
knowledge dominate in early stages while internal pro-
cesses take the lead in later stages of development?
Second, studies spanning multiple levels of analy-
sis are also scarce. Several studies in this special issue
provide the first evidence that ambidexterity results
from interactions across multiple levels (Andriopou-
los and Lewis 2009, Groysberg and Lee 2009, Jansen
et al. 2009, Mom et al. 2009, Taylor and Helfat 2009).
These combined studies provide the groundwork for
further research addressing highly relevant questions:
How do individual factors affect organizational ambidex-
terity? What are the similarities, contradictions, and
interrelations between an individual’s, a group’s, and an
organization’s activities that affect ambidexterity? How
are efforts synchronized and managed across levels?
Alternatively, are there contradictory exploitative and
explorative activities that enable ambidexterity across
multiple levels? How do supervisory boards contribute
to an organization’s ambidextrous orientation?
Third, studies that examine the conditions under
which ambidexterity leads to success are relatively
scarce. The works in this special issue indicate that dif-
ferences in size and resource endowment (Cao et al.
2009), industry contexts (Andriopoulos and Lewis 2009,
Groysberg and Lee 2009), and environmental dynamism
(Cao et al. 2009, Mom et al. 2009, Rothaermel and
Alexandre 2009) matter when relating ambidexterity to
performance. Future studies should develop more fine-
grained accounts that consider the mediators and mod-
erators that may affect the ambidexterity-performance
relationship. It could also be beneficial to explore
ambidexterity’s effect on alternative measures of perfor-
mance. Ambidexterity is likely to be positively related to
more fundamental measures of success, including firm
survival, resistance to organizational crises and decline,
the creation of employment, employee satisfaction and
motivation, and corporate reputation.
Conclusion
We started this introduction to the special issue by men-
tioning the importance of organizational ambidexterity
for long-term firm performance. We explored four funda-
mental tensions related to organizational ambidexterity,
including differentiation versus integration, individual
versus organizational, static versus dynamic, and internal
versus external. The seven articles in this special issue
contribute to our knowledge on these tensions and open
up promising avenues for future research. Such research
is vital as firms across industries and geographical set-
tings struggle with the challenges related to sustainable
value creation. Research on organizational ambidexterity
shows that some individuals, groups, and organizations
are successful in the long run, and this research pro-
vides important insights into the strategies, structures,
and processes that allow them to balance and harmonize
seemingly contradictory requirements.
Acknowledgments
The editors would like to acknowledge all of the authors and
reviewers who have contributed to this special issue. They are
deeply grateful to Linda Argote and Jennifer Kukawa for their
support and their outstanding commitment to this special issue.
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