School furniture and the user population: an anthropometric
perspective
S. MILANESE* and K. GRIMMER
Centre for Allied Health Research, University of South Australia, Adelaide,
Australia
Keywords: Adolescent spinal symptoms; Anthropometry; School furniture.
The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between reported
spinal symptoms in an adolescent student population, and the match between
their individual anthropometric dimensions and their school furniture. The
hypothesis was that students who were too large or too small for their school
furniture, i.e. with anthropometric measurements furthest from the group whose
anthropometry was the ‘best fit’ with the furniture, would have a higher frequency
of reported symptoms. From data collected from 1269 schoolchildren, reported
spinal symptoms and anthropometric measures were examined. Stature measures
were divided into quartiles. A standard government issue school chair and desk
was measured and the anthropometric quartile of the population having the ‘best
fit’ with the furniture was identified using standard ergonomics recommendations.
Odds ratios were calculated for spinal symptoms reported within each quartile
group. The first quartile group (the smallest students) was identified as having the
‘best fit’ with the school furniture. An overall higher odds of reporting low back
pain was noted in students with anthropometric dimensions in the fourth quartile
(the tallest students). While it is acknowledged that there is a multifactorial nature
of causality of adolescent spinal symptoms, it is contended that the degree of mis-
match between child anthropometry and school furniture set-up should be further
examined as a strong and plausible associate of adolescent low back pain.
1. Introduction
It has been reported that adolescent school children suffer significant prevalence of
musculoskeletal symptoms, including low back, neck and shoulder pain, and
headaches (Pascoe et al. 1997). The prevalence of low back pain amongst adolescents
has been reported as ranging from 28% to 50% of the adolescent population
(Balague et al. 1988, Kujala et al. 1992, Olsen et al. 1992, Salminen et al. 1995,
Burton et al. 1996). This finding was recently corroborated in the Australian setting
with a cross sectional study of 1269 randomly selected adolescents (aged 12 – 18
years) in metropolitan high schools in South Australia finding that over 50% of
adolescent school students reported a recent event of spinal pain (Grimmer et al.
1999a, Grimmer and Williams 2000). Data on the association between stature of
adolescent subjects and reported low back pain per school year level is currently in
press (Steele et al. 2001).
*Author for correspondence. Steve Milanese, Centre for Allied Health Research, University of
South Australia, City East Campus, North Terrace, Adelaide 5000, Australia.
e-mail: steve.milanese@unisa.edu.au
Ergonomics ISSN 0014-0139 print/ISSN 1366-5847 online # 2004 Taylor & Francis Ltd
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/0014013032000157841
ERGONOMICS, 15 MARCH, 2004, VOL. 47, NO. 4, 416 – 426

Adult studies have identified strong links between various musculoskeletal
disorders and exposure to highly repetitive or static work, awkward postures,
localized contact pressures and adverse environmental conditions (van Wely 1970,
Silverstein et al. 1986, Grandjean 1987, Keyersling et al. 1991). Such excessive
demands, forced upon a person in a work situation, can be described as resulting
from a mis-match in the Human –Machine –Environment (HME) system. This mis-
match in the HME System can occur between a person and the physical demands of
the task, the individual workstation set up, the wider workspace design, the physical
environment and/or the work organisation (Wilson 1995).
Adolescent school students are a unique occupational group as aspects of their
HME system are affected by their stage of development. The physical characteristics
of the adolescent alters significantly as he/she undergoes musculoskeletal develop-
ment and maturity (Tanner et al. 1976). Anthropometrical characteristics such as
stature, weight and strength have been shown to vary significantly amongst the
adolescent population (Pheasant 1996), a result of differing developmental rates.
This adolescent developmental process results in an immature musculoskeletal
system potentially more susceptible to injury from imposed stresses (Tanner et al.
1976). Along with the developmental changes affecting the musculoskeletal system,
the adolescent student is also subject to significant changes in their sexual and
emotional development. The effect that these tumultuous changes in overall
development have on the HME system remains unclear.
This study addresses one aspect of the HME system for the adolescent student, the
individual workstation elements, in an ongoing effort to identify potential causative
elements for the high level of reported adolescent symptoms. Considering just the
academic side of adolescence, the main elements of the student’s workstation that
may be significant for the development of musculoskeletal symptoms include:
(a) The load carriage system used to transport educational/sporting equipment.
Students are required to transport their ‘tools of trade’, including books,
laptop computers, folders etc., throughout the day, between classes and
between school and home. This involves carrying significant loads in a load
carrying arrangement such as a backpack or school bag, and may include
lifting loads to and from a storage locker. It has been reported that
students carry between 2% and 30% of body weight at school with up to
99.4% of students preferring a backpack arrangement for load transport
(Pascoe et al. 1997, Grimmer et al. 1999a). Mechanical over-loading of the
spine and musculoskeletal system has been linked to injury (Keyersling et
al. 1991).
(b) The locker system used in some school environments to store books and other
required materials. Use of the storage lockers involves lifting loads to/from
the locker, often repeatedly during the day. Given the weights reportedly
carried in backpacks by students, the weights lifted to/from lockers could
range between 2 and 20 kg (Grimmer et al. 1999a). Lifting has been
implicated as a risk for the development of low back pain (Ayoub 1987).
(c) The chair/desk set-up at which the student sits. The adolescent student is
exposed to extended periods of time in seated postures, both at school and
home, which, with the advent and increasing popularity of computer based
entertainment, appears to be increasing. Whilst seated, the student interacts
with paper-based hardcopy on a desk surface, or with keyboard/mouse input
417School furniture and the user population