Systematics of past changes in ocean ventilation: a comparison of Cretaceous Ocean Anoxic Event 2 and Pleistocene to Holocene Oxygen Minimum Zones

Abstract

Present day oceans are generally well ventilated except mid-depth oxygen minimum zones (OMZs) under high surface water productivity regimes, regions of sluggish circulation, and restricted marginal basins. In the Mesozoic, however, entire oceanic basins transiently became dysoxic or even anoxic. In particular the Cretaceous Ocean Anoxic Events (OAEs) were characterised by laminated organic-carbon rich shales and low-oxygen indicating trace fossil assemblages preserved in the sedimentary record. Yet both, qualitative and quantitative assessments of intensity and extent of Cretaceous near-bottom water oxygenation have been hampered by deep or long-term diagenesis and the evolution of marine biota serving as oxygen indicators in today's ocean. Sedimentary features similar to those found in Cretaceous strata were observed in deposits underlying Recent OMZs, where bottom-water oxygen levels, the flux of organic matter, and benthic life are well known. Their implications for constraining past bottom-water oxygenation are addressed in this review, with emphasis on comparing OMZ sediments from the Peruvian upwelling with deposits of the late Cenomanian OAE 2 from the Atlantic NW African shelf. Holocene laminated sediments were encountered at bottom-water oxygen levels of <7 μmol kg −1 under the Peruvian upwelling and <5 μmol kg −1 in California Borderland basins and the Pakistan Margin. Changes of sediment input on seasonal to decadal time scales are necessary to create laminae of different composition. However, bottom currents may shape similar textures that are difficult to discern from primary seasonal laminae in sediment cores. The millimetre-sized trace fossil Chondrites was commonly found in Cretaceous strata and Recent oxygen-depleted environments where its diameter increased with oxygen levels from 5 to 45 μmol kg −1. This ichnogenus has not been reported from Peruvian sediments but cm-sized crab burrows appeared around 10 μmol kg −1, which may indicate a minimum oxygen value for bioturbated Cretaceous strata. Organic carbon accumulation rates ranged from 0.7 and 2.8 g C cm −2 kyr −1 in laminated sections of OAE 2 in the Tarfaya Basin, Morocco, matching late Holocene accumulation rates of the majority of laminated Peruvian sediment cores under Recent oxygen levels below 5 μmol kg −1. Sediments deposited at >10 μmol kg −1 showed an inverse exponential relationship of bottom-water oxygen levels and organic carbon accumulation depicting enhanced bioirrigation and decomposition of organic matter with increased oxygen supply. In absence of seasonal laminations and under conditions of low burial diagenesis, this relationship may facilitate quantitative estimates of paleo-oxygenation under suboxic conditions. Similarities and differences between Cretaceous OAEs and late Quaternary OMZs have to be further explored to improve our understanding of sedimentary systems under hypoxic conditions.