795
Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 2008, 5, 795-814
© 2008 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Walking, Cycling, and Obesity Rates
in Europe, North America, and Australia
David R. Bassett, Jr., John Pucher, Ralph Buehler,
Dixie L. Thompson, and Scott E. Crouter
Purpose: This study was designed to examine the relationship between active trans-
portation (defined as the percentage of trips taken by walking, bicycling, and public
transit) and obesity rates (BMI ≥ 30 kg · m−2) in different countries. Methods: National
surveys of travel behavior and health indicators in Europe, North America, and Aus-
tralia were used in this study; the surveys were conducted in 1994 to 2006. In some
cases raw data were obtained from national or federal agencies and then analyzed, and
in other cases summary data were obtained from published reports. Results: Coun-
tries with the highest levels of active transportation generally had the lowest obesity
rates. Europeans walked more than United States residents (382 versus 140 km per
person per year) and bicycled more (188 versus 40 km per person per year) in 2000.
Discussion: Walking and bicycling are far more common in European countries than
in the United States, Australia, and Canada. Active transportation is inversely related
to obesity in these countries. Although the results do not prove causality, they suggest
that active transportation could be one of the factors that explain international differ-
ences in obesity rates.
Keywords: active transportation, bicycling, walking, commuting, transportation,
physical activity, exercise, travel, obesity
Walking and bicycling are far more common in Europe than in North Amer-
ica and Australia.1 The use of public transit, which normally requires walking or
cycling to reach the transit stop,2,3 is also more common in Europe. Travel-related
walking, bicycling, and use of public transit are collectively referred to as active
transportation. Active transportation is common in Europe because of several
factors1,3,4:
1. Compact, dense cities with mixed land uses that generate short trips;
2. Restrictions on car use such as car-free zones, low speed limits, and
prohibitions of through traffic;
Bassett and Thompson are with the University of Tennessee Obesity Research Center, The University
of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996. Pucher and Buehler are with the Urban Planning and Policy
Development Program, Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, Rutgers University, New
Brunswick, NJ 08901. Crouter is with the Dept of Exercise and Health Sciences, University of
Massachusetts, Boston, MA 02125.

796 Bassett et al
3. Extensive, safe, and convenient facilities for walking and cycling;
4. Traffic calming of residential neighborhoods;
5. Coordination of public transit with walking and cycling to transit stations and
stops, including bike parking, as well as safe sidewalks and bikeways;
6. Traffic regulations and enforcement policies that favor pedestrians and
cyclists over motorists; and
7. High cost of owning and operating a car resulting from expensive driver
licensing, high gasoline prices, and high taxes on car purchases.
Some researchers have suggested that the physical activity generated by
active transportation is helpful in weight control.5,6 Walking and bicycle commut-
ing usually fall into the moderate-intensity range, and if performed regularly, can
result in substantial amounts of energy expenditure.7 In addition, the use of public
transit (trains, subways, and buses) usually involves walking or cycling to and
from transit stops and, hence, would also be expected to promote weight control,
as well as a host of other physical and mental health benefits.8,9
The purpose of this study was to determine if variations in active transporta-
tion (defined here as the percentage of trips taken by walking, bicycling, and
public transit) are related to international differences in obesity prevalence. It was
hypothesized that developed nations where active transportation is common would
have lower obesity rates than those with high automobile dependency. We limited
our comparison to Europe, North America, and Australia because industrialized
countries on those continents have similar, high levels of income and standards of
living.10,11 This reduced the likelihood that obesity rates would be influenced by
food availability, as is the case for developing nations.11
Methods
To be able to draw valid conclusions, representative data on active transportation
and obesity prevalence in different nations were needed. The approach we used
was to synthesize data from various sources. This included both raw data from
national surveys of travel behavior and health indicators obtained from govern-
ment agencies (which were then analyzed by our colleagues or ourselves), as well
as summary data obtained from published reports.
Transportation Data
At this time, there are no standardized travel surveys that gather data for the pur-
pose of allowing international comparisons.12 However, in many countries,
national travel surveys are conducted by, or under the direction of, national or
federal authorities. An article by Pucher,4 cited by the Transportation Research
Board of the National Academy of Sciences,3 compiled data on the percentage of
trips in the mid 1990s taken by various transportation modes in 10 countries of
Europe and North America. We expanded this data set by including more coun-
tries and updated travel data for most of the 10 previously included countries by
using the most recent national transportation studies conducted between 1994 and
2006. We consulted a review of short-distance travel patterns in Europe12 and
gathered additional data from ministries of transportation in various countries. By