Effects of Maternal Cigarette Smoking on Trace Element Levels and Steroidogenesis in the Maternal–Placental–Fetal Unit

Abstract

This study evaluates the interaction of toxic elements cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) due to exposure from cigarette smoking, essential elements, and steroidogenesis in the maternal–placental–fetal unit. In a cohort of 155 healthy, postpartum women with vaginal term deliveries in clinical hospitals in Zagreb, Croatia, samples of maternal blood/serum and urine, placental tissue, and umbilical cord blood/serum were collected at childbirth. The biomarkers determined were concentrations of Cd, Pb, iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and selenium (Se), and steroid hormones progesterone and estradiol in maternal and umbilical cord blood and the placenta. Three study groups were designated based on self-reported data on cigarette smoking habits and confirmed by urine cotinine levels: never smokers (n = 71), former smokers (n = 48), and active smokers (n = 36). Metal(loid)s, steroid hormones, urine cotinine, and creatinine levels were analyzed by ICP–MS, ELISA, GC–MS, and spectrophotometry. Cigarette smoking during pregnancy was associated with increased Cd levels in maternal, placental, and fetal compartments, Pb in the placenta, and with decreased Fe in the placenta. In active smokers, decreased progesterone and estradiol concentrations in cord blood serum were found, while sex steroid hormones did not change in either maternal serum or placenta. This study provides further evidence regarding toxic and essential metal(loid) interactions during prenatal life, and new data on sex steroid disruption in cord serum related to cigarette smoking. The results indicate that umbilical cord sex steroid levels may be a putative early marker of developmental origins of the future burden of disease related to harmful prenatal exposure to cigarette smoke.