Comprehensive insights into electric vehicle classification and lithium-ion battery technologies: Applications, disposal, and thermal management

Abstract

Electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a critical solution to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the transportation sector. However, the effectiveness and sustainability of EVs are closely tied to the performance and environmental impact of lithium ion batteries (LIBs). This study provides an in-depth exploration of LIB technologies, focusing on battery thermal management systems (BTMSs), recycling processes, and the environmental consequences of large-scale battery deployment. We compare different battery types, including lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, lead-acid, and metal-air batteries, presenting their advantages, limitations, and sustainability metrics in a comprehensive table. Furthermore, this work investigates a variety of cooling methods, air, liquid, phase change material (PCM), and thermoelectric systems, highlighting their effects on battery lifespan, efficiency, and safety. The analysis extends to the environmental impacts of LIB production and disposal, exploring recycling technologies like pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and direct recycling processes. By integrating intelligent cooling systems and addressing challenges in waste management, this research bridges a crucial gap in the literature, offering innovative solutions to enhance LIB efficiency, longevity, and sustainability in EV applications.