Occurrence and distribution of selected pharmaceuticals in fresh fish along the Kenyan coast and assessment of potential human health risks

Abstract

Fish consumption is known to have several health benefits. However, consuming fish contaminated with pharmaceuticals can potentially lead to long-term detrimental effects and other health risks for consumers. This study aimed to assess the potential human risks associated with fish consumption from Tudor creek. The creek is one of the peri-urban creeks near the East African coastal city of Mombasa, Kenya. A novel comprehensive analysis of 14 selected pharmaceuticals was conducted for the first time in different fish species from Tudor creek. The concentrations of pharmaceuticals in fish muscles and gills from Tudor creek ranged between detection limit (DL)-1623.98 ng g−1 and between DL-1785.60 ng g−1, respectively. High pharmaceutical concentrations were observed in fish species Platax pinnatus, Lethrinus mahsena, and Acanthurus blochii with total concentrations of ∑3870.80 ng g−1, ∑3435.57 ng g−1 and ∑3329.37 ng g−1, respectively. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of pharmaceuticals through consumption of fish ranged between 1.01-1441.70 ng kg−1 bw per day. The Target Hazard Quotients (THQs) for trimethoprim, the parent tetracycline compound, and caffeine exceeded 5%, suggesting that all three substances posed health risks. There is a need to create public awareness of the impact caused by pharmaceuticals discharged into aquatic/marine environments. Furthermore, there is a need for policies and legislation on the disposal of pharmaceuticals. Effective monitoring and enforcement will also be necessary to help prevent negative impacts on livelihood, sustainability of our marine environment, and human health.