Harassment in Virtual Reality: A Systematic Review

Abstract

This systematic review examines harassment in virtual reality (VR), synthesizing findings from 85 studies published between 2017 and 2025. We propose a nuanced typology of harassment, encompassing spatial intrusion, sexual and verbal abuse, identity-based discrimination, group-targeted harassment, and systemic harms, and demonstrate how VR's immersive and embodied features amplify risk and impact. Marginalized users, such as women, LGBTQ+ individuals, children, and people with disabilities, face disproportionate harm. We further analyze the psychological and behavioral consequences of harassment, as well as the effectiveness and limitations of current governance, design, and AI-driven interventions. Our review identifies persistent research gaps in theory, measurement, and inclusive protection, and advocates for ethical, participatory, and preventive approaches to platform safety. This work aims to guide researchers and designers in building more equitable and safe VR environments.