The role of zinc and copper in gynecological malignancies

Abstract

Zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) are essential microelements, which take part in cellular metabolism, feature in enzymatic systems, and regulate enzyme activity. Homeostasis of these micronutrients is tightly regulated by multiple compensatory mechanisms that balance their concentrations including transporters, importers, and metallothioneins. An altered intake of only one of these trace elements may cause an imbalance in their levels and result in their competition for absorption. Relatively low levels of zinc and increased levels of copper may result in an increased level of oxidative stress and impair the antioxidant properties of multiple enzymes. Altered levels of trace elements were discovered in various pathologies including immunological, degenerative, and inflammatory diseases. Moreover, due to the role of Zn and Cu in oxidative stress and chronic inflammation, they were found to influence cancerogenesis. We review the roles of zinc and copper and their mechanisms in tumor growth, metastasis potential, microenvironment remodeling, and drug resistance. We highlight their role as potential biomarkers for cancer diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis, concentrating on their impact on gynecological malignancies.