A review of soil–foundation–structure interaction and structure–soil–structure interaction effects based on numerical simulations

Abstract

This study presents a comprehensive review of dynamic soil–foundation–structure interaction (SFSI) and structure–soil–structure interaction (SSSI) as addressed in modern seismic design codes and numerical simulation approaches. The investigation focuses on how SFSI and SSSI phenomena affect the vibrational response of structures under seismic loading. We employed a systematic methodology to select relevant literature and code provisions, analysing their treatment of interaction effects and comparing simulation results. Numerical studies, design standards, and experimental validations were considered to evaluate the implications of ignoring or incorporating interaction effects in structural design. Key findings indicate that while most codes provide procedures to account for SFSI, SSSI effects remain largely overlooked. Furthermore, current methods often assume linear soil behaviour, limiting their applicability to real-world conditions. Experimental results from centrifuge modelling and shaking table tests demonstrate that nonlinear soil behaviour and foundation flexibility can significantly alter seismic response. The SFSI has been found to reduce seismic demand through energy dissipation mechanisms such as rocking, while SSSI can either amplify or mitigate response depending on relative mass and stiffness. Despite these critical impacts, current design practices often neglect such interactions, particularly in densely built environments. These findings underline the necessity of integrating SFSI and SSSI into seismic analysis frameworks for safer and more accurate performance-based design. The review highlights the need for comprehensive models and experimental validation to support the development of more resilient design practices.