Functional electrical stimulation in the 21st century

Abstract

Electrical activation of retained neural pathways provides an important component of restoring lost function for individuals who have sustained significant functional loss due to spinal cord injury that has restricted their ability to be independent and perform activities of daily living. Both external and implanted techniques of stimulation have been developed and used to provide many functions. Food and Drug Administration-approved systems are available for restoration of hand function and bladder and bowel control and restoration, and many systems are in clinical trials. Advanced techniques for providing additional motor function are also under development.