Islamism and post-Islamism: "Non-Muslim" in socio-political discourses of Pakistan, the United States, and Indonesia

Abstract

Islamism is defined by Asef Bayat as ideologies and movements that strive to establish some kind of an 'Islamic order,' in the form of a religious state, sharia law, or moral codes. However, Bayat and other scholars have found that nowadays Islamism is changing and many countries share the traits of post-Islamism instead of Islamism. According to Bayat, post-Islamism is both condition and project to "conceptualize and strategize the rationale and modalities of transcending Islam in social, political, and intellectual domains." In short, it has a hybrid tendency to combine Islam and democracy. This paper will discuss how the category of "non-Muslim" is taken place in the sociopolitical discourse of Islamism and post-Islamism. To limit the discussion, there are only three examples from Pakistan, the United States, and Indonesia.