An Explorative Social Life Cycle Assessment for Wild Harvest and Cultivation of F. lumbricalis in the Baltic Sea Region

Abstract

This study applies a Social Life Cycle Assessment (S-LCA) to evaluate the social impacts of Furcellaria lumbricalis red macroalgae production through wild harvesting (WH) and offshore cultivation (OC) in the Baltic Sea Region. As macroalgae gain interest in food, feed, and biorefinery applications, understanding the social sustainability of different production systems becomes increasingly important. The assessment follows UNEP/SETAC (2020) guidelines and the ISO 14075:2024 framework, adopting a cradle-to-gate system boundary. The Social Hotspot Database (SHDB) was used to assess 30 social indicators under two scenarios: (1) WH, the predominant method in Estonia, and (2) a hypothetical OC system. The functional unit was defined as 1 USD generated over an 8-hour working day, and Monte Carlo simulations were conducted to address uncertainty. Results show that WH presents lower social risks (432.85 Pt) than OC (719.51 Pt). In WH, the main risks were linked to occupational hazards and potential forced labour during harvesting activities. In OC, boat maintenance contributed the highest share of impacts due to extended operational requirements. Key risks across both scenarios included injuries and fatalities, forced labour, and discrimination. The findings suggest that WH is the more socially sustainable option, supporting traditional employment and local communities. However, improvements in occupational health and safety remain necessary. OC, despite its potential scalability, poses higher social risks that call for strengthened labour standards and governance. Future research should incorporate site-specific data and stakeholder engagement to enhance the robustness and relevance of S-LCA in macroalgae value chains.