Current knowledge for implementing safe and sustainable by design across the life cycle of nanosilver textiles

Abstract

Silver nanomaterials (AgNMs) are increasingly integrated into textiles due to their unique functionalities, such as antimicrobial, odour-resistant, and self-cleaning properties. Their widespread use, though beneficial, raises concerns about environmental and human health impacts across their entire life cycle spanning synthesis, manufacturing, use, and end-of-life. This review evaluates the scientific literature available, selected through structured keyword-based searches across major academic databases, focusing on studies relevant to AgNMs in textile applications. The analysis is framed by the 12 Green Chemistry Principles and the Safe-and-Sustainable-by-Design (SSbD) framework, a European policy initiative that promotes the integration of safety, sustainability, and functionality from early design stages. This review identifies the promising results of plant-based and enzymatic methods as safer and more sustainable options due to their reduced usage of toxic reagents and use of renewable sources. The manufacturing stage remains complex due to diverse integration methods, occupational exposure concerns, and inconsistent application of sustainability metrics. The use phase underscores environmental implications primarily from AgNM release during laundering, while direct human health risks remain comparatively low. Finally, the end-of-life stage reveals lower-than-anticipated ecological risks, largely due to effective sequestration of AgNMs in wastewater treatment sludges, although these demands a transition towards circular recovery strategies. The review highlights critical knowledge gaps in long-term environmental behaviour, exposure modelling, and standardization of performance metrics. Recommendations include expanding quantitative data collection, improving transparency in product labelling, and integrating circular recovery strategies. Advancements in SSbD frameworks, quantitative sustainability indicators, and EU-led initiatives provide actionable pathways to enhance stakeholder confidence and promote sustainable textile innovation. This work provides a comprehensive and policy-relevant synthesis to guide future research and safer innovation in nanomaterial-enabled textiles.