Non-invasively accuracy enhanced blood glucose sensor using shallow dense neural networks with NIR monitoring and medical features

Abstract

Non-invasive and accurate method for continuous blood glucose monitoring, the self-testing of blood glucose is in quest for better diagnosis, control and the management of diabetes mellitus (DM). Therefore, this study reports a multiple photonic band near-infrared (mbNIR) sensor augmented with personalized medical features (PMF) in Shallow Dense Neural Networks (SDNN) for the precise, inexpensive and pain free blood glucose determination. Datasets collected from 401 blood samples were randomized and trained with ten-fold validation. Additionally, a cohort of 234 individuals not included in the model training set were investigated to evaluate the performance of the model. The model achieved the accuracy of 97.8% along with 96.0% precision, 94.8% sensitivity and 98.7% specificity for DM classification based on a diagnosis threshold of 126 mg/dL for diabetes in fasting blood glucose. For non-invasive real-time blood glucose monitoring, the model exhibited ± 15% error with 95% confidence interval and the detection limit of 60–400 mg/dL, as validated with the standard hexokinase enzymatic method for glucose estimation. In conclusion, this proposed mbNIR based SDNN model with PMF is highly accurate and computationally cheaper compared to similar previous works using complex neural network. Some groups proposed using complicated mixed types of sensors to improve noninvasive glucose prediction accuracy; however, the accuracy gain over the complexity and costs of the systems harvested is still in questioned (Geng et al. in Sci Rep 7:12650, 2017). None of previous works report on accuracy enhancement of NIR/NN using PMF. Therefore, the proposed SDNN over PMF/mbNIR is an extremely promising candidate for the non-invasive real-time blood glucose monitoring with less complexity and pain-free.