Nanotechnology-driven strategies to overcome azole resistance in Phoma arachidicola: mechanistic insights, resistance dynamics, and translational barriers

Abstract

Azole fungicides are central to peanut disease management, yet their durability is increasingly jeopardized by the accelerating emergence of azole-resistant fungal populations, including Phoma arachidicola, the causal agent of peanut web blotch. Conventional azole formulations exhibit intrinsic physiochemical limitations such as poor aqueous solubility, rapid photothermal degradation, and inconsistent field retention, that drive sub-optimal dosing and intensify resistance selection pressure. Critically, the literature lacks an authoritative synthesis that unifies the mechanistic basis of azole resistance with the design, performance, and translational constraints of nano-enabled azole delivery systems. This review delivers a comprehensive, mechanistically anchored evaluation of nano-assisted azole technologies across polymeric, lipidic, and metallic platforms, interrogating their ability to enhance bioavailability, reinforce cuticular penetration, and disrupt evolutionary pathways that stabilize resistance. In parallel, we rigorously evaluate the persistent regulatory constraints, manufacturing scalability bottlenecks, ecological and regulatory uncertainties, and public acceptance challenges that currently limit the translation deployment of agricultural nanotechnologies. By integrating molecular resistance biology with nanomaterial engineering, and environmental dimensions, this review establishes a decisive framework for designing next-generation azole nanofungicides with unprecedented stability, precision, and resistance-mitigating capacity. The insight articulated herein chart a scientifically grounded roadmap to guide future innovation, regulatory harmonization, and sustainable disease management in peanut agroecosystems.