Advances in Lithium Extraction from Spodumene: Alternatives to Sulfuric Acid Digestion

Abstract

Conventional lithium extraction from spodumene via sulfuric acid roasting can achieve up to 98% recovery but suffers from high energy use, acidic residues, and purification complexity. This review evaluates alternative methods for both α- and β-spodumene, aiming for improved sustainability. For α-spodumene, Na2SO4–CaO salt roasting achieved >95% recovery at 900 °C via water leaching. Sodium carbonate roasting–NaOH leaching and mechanical activation–Na2SO4 roasting reached 95.9% and ~92%, respectively. High-pressure NaOH leaching reached 95.8%, while alkaline decomposition–acid leaching yielded 53.2–84.1%. Microwave-assisted calcination achieved up to 97% recovery, and fluoride-based roasting gave 93–98% but raised environmental concerns. Bioleaching is eco-friendly but slow, with <3.5% recovery. For β-spodumene, high-pressure leaching using sodium carbonate (>94%), sodium sulfate (90.7%–93.3%), sodium chloride (~93%), and nitric acid (~95%) provided high recoveries. Atmospheric leaching with HF and H3PO4 yielded ~90% and ~40%, respectively, while carbonic acid leaching reached 75% after multiple stages. Chlorination roasting achieved near-complete recovery. The Metso-Outotec high-pressure sodium carbonate leaching process is set for industrial-scale implementation at the Keliber project in 2025, confirming its scalability. Overall, these emerging processes have the potential to reduce energy input, reagent demand, and waste generation, offering practical pathways toward more sustainable lithium production from spodumene.