Application of Reproductive Toxicity Caused by Endocrine Disruptors in Rotifers: A Review

Abstract

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), widespread in aquatic environments, interfere with endocrine function in organisms and threaten ecosystem stability. Rotifers, critical live feed for marine fish, shrimp, and crab larvae, link EDC-induced reproductive impairment to marine ecosystem stability and aquaculture sustainability. This PRISMA-compliant review synthesizes key findings, consequences, and gaps in EDC–rotifer reproductive toxicity research. Traditional EDCs (heavy metals, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), phenols, phthalate esters, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and steroid hormones) and emerging EDCs (disinfection byproducts, microplastics, pharmaceutical metabolites) induce distinct reproductive harm—e.g., Hg2+ shows extreme toxicity (24 h LC50 = 4.51 μg L−1 in Brachionus plicatilis), BDE-47 damages ovaries, and microplastics cause transgenerational delays. Rotifer species and exposure duration affect sensitivity (e.g., BDE-47: 96 h LC50 = 0.163 mg L−1 vs. 24 h LC50 > 22 mg L−1 in B. plicatilis). Oxidative stress is a universal mechanism, and combined EDC exposure produces context-dependent synergistic/antagonistic effects. EDC-induced impairment reduces rotifer population density, alters structure, and propagates through food webs, threatening aquaculture and biodiversity; transgenerational toxicity (e.g., 4-nonylphenol: F1 inhibition 28% vs. 12% in F0) weakens resilience. This review supports EDC risk assessment, with gaps including long-term low-concentration data, transgenerational mechanisms, EDC–microbiome interactions, and emerging PFAS toxicity—priorities for future research.