Archaeological applications of lead isotopic analysis to non-ferrous metals in Africa: A critical review

Abstract

Lead isotopic analysis (LIA) has become a powerful tool in archaeology for identifying the geological source, or provenance, of non-ferrous metals and their alloys. Most applications have historically focused on Europe, but there is also a long, and rapidly expanding, history of LIA application to the archaeological record of Africa. Here we highlight how Africanist archaeologists can apply LIA to understand materials provenance and circulation, and we discuss why this technique works well in Central and southern Africa but requires a more nuanced approach for applications in North, West, and East Africa.