Early Literacy and Numeracy Difficulties: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Reading and numeracy constitute foundational competencies that underpin children’s academic growth, social participation, and long-term learning trajectories. Despite their importance, a substantial proportion of learners continue to experience persistent challenges in acquiring these skills during the early years of schooling. Drawing on empirical findings from Malaysian and international scholarship, this article synthesizes the multifaceted factors contributing to literacy and numeracy difficulties, including home environment, pedagogical practices, socioeconomic disparities, language background, neurodevelopmental conditions such as dyslexia and dyscalculia, and limited access to early childhood education. The review further analyses the cognitive, academic, emotional, and social consequences of these difficulties, demonstrating how they cumulatively impede students’ holistic development and heighten risks of academic underachievement, reduced motivation, and long-term disadvantage. In response to these challenges, the article outlines a comprehensive framework of evidence-based strategies emphasising early identification and diagnostic assessment, differentiated and multisensory instruction, development of foundational skills, parental involvement, professional capacity-building, and technology-supported learning. It also highlights the critical role of supportive school environments and policy commitments in ensuring equitable access to intervention resources. The discussion affirms that addressing early reading and numeracy difficulties is not only an educational imperative but also a socio-moral responsibility requiring systematic, collaborative, and sustained action. Strengthening literacy and numeracy competence from the earliest stages is crucial for enabling learners to reach their potential and participate fully in future educational and societal contexts.