Racial and Ethnic Disparities in EMS Use of Restraints and Sedation for Patients With Behavioral Health Emergencies

Abstract

IMPORTANCE Emergency medical services (EMS) clinicians commonly care for patients with behavioral health emergencies (BHEs), including acute agitation. There are known racial and ethnic disparities in the use of physical restraint and chemical sedation for BHEs in emergency department settings, but less is known about disparities in prehospital use of restraint or sedation. OBJECTIVE To investigate the association of patient race and ethnicity with the use of prehospital physical restraint and chemical sedation during EMS encounters for BHEs. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS This nationwide retrospective cohort study used data from EMS agencies across the US that participated in the 2021 ESO Data Collaborative research dataset. Emergency medical services encounters among patients aged 16 to 90 years with a primary or secondary impression, sign or symptom, or protocol use associated with a BHE from January 1 to December 31, 2021, were included. Statistical analysis was conducted from July 2023 to March 2024. EXPOSURES Patient race and ethnicity, which was categorized as Hispanic, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic other (American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, Hawaiian Native or Other Pacific Islander, other, or multiracial), and unknown. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES The primary outcome was administration of any physical restraint and/or chemical sedation (defined as any antipsychotic medication, benzodiazepine, or ketamine). RESULTS A total of 661 307 encounters (median age, 41 years [IQR, 30-56 years]; 56.9% male) were included. Race and ethnicity were documented as 9.9% Hispanic, 20.2% non-Hispanic Black, 59.5% non-Hispanic White, 1.9% non-Hispanic other, and 8.6% unknown race and ethnicity. Restraint and/or sedation was used in 46 042 (7.0%) of encounters, and use differed across racial and ethnic groups (Hispanic, 10.6%; non-Hispanic Black, 7.9%; non-Hispanic White, 6.1%; non-Hispanic other, 10.9%; unknown race and ethnicity, 5.9%; P