A Deep Learning Approach to Downscaling Microwave Land Surface Temperatures for a Clear-Sky Merged Infrared-Microwave Product

Abstract

Highlights: What are the main findings? A new clear-sky merged LST dataset for the USA (2004–2021, 5 km resolution) was successfully produced by fusing downscaled AMSR-E/2 generated from a U-Net deep learning model with MODIS observations. The merged dataset reduces cloud-induced gaps and noise compared to MODIS, improves spatial detail compared to AMSR alone and shows strong agreement with ground validation. What are the implications of the main finding? The dataset provides a harmonised and spatially consistent LST record, overcoming limitations of single-sensor products. It demonstrates the potential value of sensor fusion for improving climate data records for long-term studies. Reliable land surface temperature (LST) data are required for monitoring climate variability, hydrological processes, and land–atmosphere interactions. Yet existing satellite-derived LST products, such as those from thermal infrared (TIR) sensors, are limited by gaps due to clouds, while passive microwave (PMW) observations, though less affected by atmospheric interference, suffer from coarse resolution and larger uncertainty. This study presents the first validated clear-sky merged LST product for the USA and combines downscaled PMW data from AMSR-E and AMSR2 with MODIS TIR observations, using a modified U-Net deep learning network. The merged dataset covers 2004–2021 at 5 km resolution, providing a compromise between spatial detail and robustness. The model performs well, with low mean squared errors and (Formula presented.) values of 0.80 (day) and 0.75 (night). The merged time series captures seasonal trends and shows a marked reduction in cloud-contamination artefacts compared to MODIS and AMSR signals. Spatially, the product is consistent across sensor transitions and reduces artefacts from TIR cloud contamination. Validation against ground stations shows results between those of TIR and PMW, with better accuracy at night and moderate positive biases influenced by land cover and terrain. Although the merged product does not match the fine resolution of TIR data by choice, it enhances spatial coverage over AMSR alone and temporal completeness over MODIS alone, where single-sensor products are limited. Residual temporal and seasonal biases are moderate, with systematic warm and cold deviations linked to land cover, propagation of emissivity errors, and sampling differences. Strong positive biases remain over terrain with complex surface properties as the downscaled AMSR is closer to MODIS temperatures. Results demonstrate the combined benefits of PMW’s broader coverage and cloud tolerance with TIR’s spatial detail. Overall, results demonstrate the potential of sensor fusion for producing spatially consistent LST records suitable for long-term environmental and climate monitoring.