Drawn-on-skin electronic tattoo as a closed-loop sensing-stimulation system for the muscles

Abstract

Simultaneous electromyography (EMG) sensing and closed-loop electrical stimulation (ES) could enable interactive muscle training, motor rehabilitation, and kinesthetic feedback. However, current systems often suffer from nonconformal device/skin interfaces, poor wearability, and anatomical variability among users, limiting signal fidelity and stimulation precision. Here, we present a fully wireless, skin-integrated electronic tattoo platform that records high-quality EMG and delivers closed-loop ES through custom drawn-on-skin, conformal electrodes with strong adhesion and high spatial accuracy. The system supports closed-loop muscle interactions across body regions and even between individuals. Machine learning models classify EMG patterns from different hand gestures with >90% accuracy and adapt ES parameters to stimulate specific muscle groups. In a heavy object holding task, users reached the required grip behavior substantially faster than unassisted controls, indicating improved neuromuscular efficiency. This closed-loop framework not only supports personalized muscle control but also supports coordinated activation across multiple sites or users, unlocking possibilities in interactive motor training, remote rehabilitation, and virtual reality environments.