The development of nomadic pastoralism in Africa

Abstract

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate adaptations to a highly unpredictable bio-physical and socioeconomic environment of African nomadic pastoral utilization systems in the past, the present, and the future. This is done with respect to three main themes: availability and use of range and water, tenure systems, and exchange and market relations. The thesis is based on the recent paradigm shift within ecological and economic studies of nomadic pastoral societies and their environments. Within the new paradigm arid and semi-arid ecosystems are perceived as being in permanent disequilibrium, and many of the pastoral strategies are seen as carefully adapted to this. The study is theoretical in the sense that it does not include results of new field studies or any original data material, it builds on other authors' theories and results. It is an attempt to provide an overview of the vast material within the field and is based on case studies from different parts of Africa. The study includes a brief review of the origins and spread of nomadic pastoralism in Africa. As far as the origins are concerned it appears that pastoralism has originated in the Sahara region c. 7-8000 BP, but pastoralism is assumed to have had many origins in different places, at different times. Thus, both agriculture and hunting can have preceded pastoralism in Africa. It appears, however, that pastoralism in the Sahara region has originated from hunting. Pastoralism had its first appearance in East Africa c. 3-4000 BP, while pastoral utilisation systems can be detected from about 2000 BP in southern Africa. It is argued that when range and water are abundant, competition mainly concerns the high productivity areas. However, population growth has increased pressure on and competition for most resources. Encroachment of agriculturalists on pastoral key resources has hampered the flexible strategies of the pastoral utilization system. There is no doubt that this pressure will continue in the future: hence, the access to range and water should be secured. This can be done by establishing watering points in underexploited areas, by increasing dry season feed production, or by importing fodder for livestock in the dry season. The customary tenure systems appear to have been adapted to the pressure on the resources. Most customary tenure systems have allowed for flexible strategies by employing a number of different rights e.g. access rights, usufruct rights, priority rights. Many of these systems have been destroyed in the colonial and post-colonial period, as the legislation has emphasized property rights. Along with the paradigm shift there has been an emerging understanding of the need for flexible tenure arrangements, and the customary, systems are therefore being reconsidered. The study examines the different exchange and market relations that have existed as far back as the records show. At first these relations were based on simple barter of agricultural and pastoral products: later, trading routes enhanced the exchange between pastoralists and other societies. In the Sahara many of these traders were nomadic pastoralists. The most important change in recent times was the arrival of the colonial powers. The impact of colonialism was profound; although pastoralists tried to adapt to the new situation it turned out to be difficult. and they were marginalised in most cases. The variable socio-political environment require flexible behavioral adaptations. It appears that involvement in the market economy can enhance pastoral production. although so far an increased market orientation has caused a polarization of pastoral societies. This thesis documents that the nomadic pastoral utilization system is a cultural adaptation to a highly variable and unpredictable natural environment. Moreover, the system's behavioral adaptive strategies have enabled it to cope with an unpredictable socio-political environment. The study concludes that nomadic pastoralism is a viable utilization system and will continue to be so in the future, as long as the following elements are ensured: maintenance of mobility to allow optimal use of the heterogeneous environment, secured access, and rights to key grazing and water resources, and flexible responses to uncertain events.