Complex PTSD

Abstract

This is a large-scale project, which involved three generations for exploring the potential intergenerational effects of the Holocaust. The literature is divided with regard to the extent and depth of long term and intergenerational effects associated with the Holocaust. In reviewing various published and unpublished findings, all of which come from non attachment-related tradition, we suggested that many studies often suffer from superficial and atheoretical approaches and from inappropriate methods and measures. We proposed that attachment theory is a fruitful conceptual framework for exploring various aspects of intergenerational transmission of Holocaust experiences. Attachment theory transcends the traditional boundaries between clinical and nonclinical approaches, in stressing the continuous and cumulative nature of favorable and unfavorable childrearingcircumstances. Thus we were impressed by the possibility of uncovering untold reserves of human stamina and resilience as well as of drawing attention to the possibly debilitating effects of extreme trauma and loss. These thoughts have set the foundations for developing a new quasi-experimental study. In this study we examined, from an attachment perspective, some of the central issues concerning adaptive and maladaptive responses to major traumas and catastrophes. Two main nonclinical groups were recruited : Israeli grandmothers with and without Holocaust experience, living in Israel during the past 50 years or so. Grandmothers in the Holocaust and in the NonHolocaust groups immigrated to Israel from Europe either after World War II or before it, respectively. The similar European background coupled with similar macro life events and stresses in Israel in both groups (e.g., wars, terrorist attacks), and the unfortunate tragic experiences of the Holocaust group, together established the basis for this "quasi-experimental" design. We assessed our attachment-related conceptualizations of the transmission of Holocaust experiences across three generations : Holocaust child survivors who lost both parents during their childhood about 50 years ago (now grandmothers), their daughters (now mothers), and their young grandchildren (infants). Forty-six triads in the Holocaust group (grandmother, mother, and grandchild) and forty-nine triads in the "NonHolocaust group" comprised the sample. Attachment-related measures were employed with the adults (AAI and the BLAAQ-U) and with the infants (Strange Situation). A wide range of measures was employed also regarding the adults' mood, Holocaust experience and social environment as well as about posttraumatic symptoms and defense mechanisms. Mother-infant interaction was also observed, with a specific focus on identifying disorganizing maternal behavior. Three different laboratories were engaged in independently scoring the various measures. The Strange Situations were classified in The Netherlands. The AAIs with grandmothers and with mothers were classified in Israel. Scoring of mother-infant interactions took place in Germany, with a specific focus on identifying inappropriate and disorganizing maternal behavior. Raters in each of the three laboratories were strictly blind to the coding work conducted in each of the collaborating laboratories. Holocaust grandmothers showed elevated traumatic stress and more unresolved states of mind with regard to attachment, as compared with the Non Holocaust grandmothers. Traumatic stress indicators in grandmothers and mothers were found to be correlated, but the Holocaust background of the participants per se did not account for these associations. Moreover, mothers and infants in the Holocaust group did not differ from their comparison Non Holocaust counterparts. Finally, no intergenerational transmission of attachment and traumatic stress that were specific to the Holocaust experience were found. The findings are discussed in the context of various compensating experiences that may alleviate the difficulty of handling traumatic experiences, especially when it comes to transmission of the these traumatic experiences across generations. The ideas of Victor Frankl about Mans search for meaning and the collective legacy of the Holocaust and the Jewishgenocide that evolved in Israel are offered as potentially protective factors in the experience of such an extreme trauma and its aftermath.