Discourse Theory: Achievements, Arguments, and Challenges

  • Torfing J
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Abstract

Post-structuralist discourse theory emphasizes the role 'of discourse and politics in shaping social, political, and cultural interpretations' [of reality].(4) Investigates how identities and structures are constructed discursively.(4) Language and politics are closely connected in bringing about (and in explaining) societal transformation: ‘social and political events change our vocabulary, and linguistic ambiguities and rhetorical innovations facilitate the advancement of new political strategies and projects.’ (5) [deze interpretatie van language laat dus ook ruimte voor interactive tussen materiele gebeurtenissen structuren die invloed uitoefenen op ons taalgebruik, tegelijkertijd geeft taal, vertogen, ook betekenis aan de wijze waarop we deze werkelijkheid interpreteren] Vormen van discourse theory: First generation 1. nadruk op ‘narrow linguistic sense of a textual unit’.(6) 2. critical linguistics: focus on spoken and written language and the way in which discourse ‘produces a particular representation of reality’ which ‘often result in ideological misrepresentation of reality’(6) Critique: no focus on notions of ideology and power, purely linguistic.(6) Second generation CDA: not only focus on spoken and written language , but also other practices with a semiotic element (tekens, niet alleen letters, maar ook andere tekens met een betekenis). These discursive practices are ideological ‘in so far as they contribute to the naturalization of contingently constructed meanings’ [maken dus niet vanzelfsprekende betekenisssen/interpretaties vanzelfsprekend] Such discourses are used to establish power. [zoals politieke bewegingen dat bijvoorbeeld doen. Critique: CDA is unclear about ‘relation between discourse and its non-discursive contexts’: non-discursive context, evenementen, komen los van het discours tot stand, maar het discours geeft er wel betekenis aan. [CDA heeft dus iets aan Cambridge School/Austin, idee dat taal ook iets doet, teweeg brengt, bewerkstelligt.](7) Foucault: richt zich niet op de vorm en inhoud van taal, maar ‘the rules governing the production of such statements and practices’, wants to identify the ‘rules of formation that regulate what can be said, how it can be said, who can speak an in which name’(7) Also unclear about rel. disc/non-disc. Latere Foucault: conduct of conduct = power. Dwz ‘the ways in which discourse regulates actions by means of shaping the identities, capacities, and relations of subordination of the social actors.’(8) [Dus: CDA nuttig voor kritische analyse van taal, Foucault voor hoe je taal met macht kunt verbinden] Third generation (post-structuralism) Alles is discourse (Derrida), defined as a ‘relational system of signifying practices that is produced through historical and ultimately political interventions and provides a contingent horizon for the construction of any meaningful object’. Grote verschil met Foucault is dus de opheffing van onderscheid tussen discours en nondiscursive (Laclau, Mouffe: ‘technology, institutions, and economic processes are ultimately constructed in an through discursive systems of difference’)(9) CDA krijgt kritiek van derde generatie omdat zij het idée afwijzen dat discourse ‘is somehow determined by extra-discursive powers at the level of the economy or the state’. [zoals human agents]. Maar zo stelt Torfing, CDA heel nuttig voor analyse van discourse, onderscheid tussen verschillende types en genres en goed te combineren met post-structuralisme.(9) Gramsci: keert zich tegen marxisme, indeling van mensen in klassen die elk een gemanlijk belangh hebben dat wordt bepaald door hun positie in de economie.(10) Gramsci argues that ‘collective wills …are produced through an intellectual and moral reform (10) Politics is a ‘constitutive force’, dus niet alles soc-ec gedetermineerd.(11) Motor van de geschiedenis is strijd om hegemonie. Discourse theory argues that ‘there is no pregiven, self-determining essence that is capable of determining and ultimately fixing all other identities within a stable and totalizing structure’(13) [zoals God] ‘While the world exists out there, thruth does not’ (see also Rorty, 1989) (13) Discourse theory and identity formation Is relationist, contextual and historicist. ‘identity is shaped in and through its relation to other meanings’ bijv. Socialism begrijpen door het tegen liberalism af te zetten.(14) Daarnaast is identity shaped through context which ‘condition how they are constructed and interpreted’ (14) En het is historicist omdat deze context door de tijd heen van karakter verandert: ‘political attempts to undermine and /or restructure the discursive context’(14) Meaning (en identity) niet alleen gevormd door ‘rhetorical strategies’ en ‘conceptual articulations’ maar ook door ‘pictures and images, symbolic actions (rituals)’ and so on [maar ik richt me vooral op die retoriek.] Discourse is constructed, according to post-structuralist thought ‘in and through hegemonic struggles that aim to establish a political and moral-intellectual leadership through the articulation of meaning and identity’.(15) ‘Articulations that manage to provide a credible principle upon which to read past, present, and future events, and capture people’s hearts and minds, become hegemonic’.(15) DIt process wordt ook wel gekarakteriseerd als ‘ideological totalization’.(15) Deze hegemonic articulation of meaning and identity gaat gepaard met ‘social antagonism’; hier komt het relationele karakter van identiteitsvorming om de hoek kijken: gaat om onderscheid us/them, we/others(15) Stable hegemonic discourses can be become ‘dislocated when it is confronted by new events that it cannot explain, represent, or in other ways domesticate’ [van belang voor mijn onderzoek, breuken in het politieke discours, potentiele breuken, aanpassingsvermogen van het discours, zie bijv. dominante katholiek discours tot 60s] (16) Although discourses are flexible and capable of adapting to changing circumstances, they are finite, and are finally confronted with hegemonic struggles.(16) Human beings are ‘split subjects’ with different possible identities but who try to reach a ‘full identity’. The way in which they reach this full identity is influenced by the hegemonic struggles between competing discourses which offer ‘ways of articulating the different points of identification into a relatively coherent discourse’. (17) Kritiek op discourse theory: verklaart het wel iets, of beschrijft het alleen? It ‘aims to describe, understand and explain how and why particular discursive formations were constructed, stabilized and transformed’.(19) Conceptual toolkit bestaat onder meer uit ‘dislocation’, ‘hegemony’, ‘social antagonism’. (19) En het zijn ‘contextualized’ studies, investigating the ‘historical conditions in which discourses emerge and take effect’. Discourse theory and politics ‘It insists that the contingent political processes leading to the formation of particular structures and institutions and particular accounts of the preferences and interests of the social actors are a central part of the analysis.’ Bijv. Niet analyse van arbeidersklasse, maar van hoe dit idee van arbeidersklasse tot stand is gekomen. Discourse theory gaat over power. ‘Power is conceived in terms of the political acts of inclusion and exclusion that shape social meanings and identities and condition the construction of social antagonisms and political frontiers.’(23) En discourse theory gaat over ‘the driving forces behind the formation and cohesion of political alliances, governance networks, political communities, social groups, and so on’.(23) The formation of political communities and discourse theory 1. formation of communities is ‘response to dislocations’ ‘Common experiences of negation, frustrations, and hope for future improvement’ 2. communities are held together ‘by common identities, vocabularies and narratives, and the analysis of these holds the key to understanding the inclusions within, and exclusions from, various communities. 3. ‘the discursive meanings and identities that bind together individual or collective actors in a community often have a totalizing, imaginary, or even fantasmatic dimension … Hence, ideological myths are a key feature of political community.’ (23-4) Ze waarschuwen ervoor om discours (discursive articulations) niet te zien als ‘a conscious means deployed by rational actors to further their own interests, by manipulating the perception that other people have of the problems, solutions, and premises at hand in the political decision-making processes’. [Ook deze actoren zitten namelijk in het discours gevangen. Hier zit dus het onderscheid tussen discours en language of politics. Je kunt het taalgebruik onderzoeken, en hier bewuste strategieën van actoren in ontwaren, maar je zult ook moeten vaststellen hoe deze taal uiteindelijk onderdeel uitmaakt van een bepaald breder discours, dat niet door de politieke actoren wordt ‘bepaald’/gedetermineerd] (24) Discourse theory houdt zich nog weinig bezig met de methodologie, met hoe de analyse wordt uitgevoerd. (26-8) Allan Dreyer Hansen and Eva Sorensen, ‘Polity as politics: studying the shaping and effects of discursive polities’, 93-116. How to go from the analysis of texts to ‘analytical claims about discourses and strategies’: look for statements which are seen as ‘evident, natural, and indisputable’, look for ‘organizing metaphors and the way they function as points of legitimization’.(102) Ik kan CDA en post-structuralist discourse theory combineren: CDA wijst op determinatie discours door non-discursive agents. Ik laat zien door een analyse van taalgebruik van politici in verschillende contexten, welke invloed de context op politiek taalgebruik had en welke bedoelingen de politici had met zijn taal (CDA) Door politici met elkaar te vergelijken probeer ik een soort ‘common discours’ bloot te leggen waardoor de politiek werd gekenmerkt. (post-structural

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Torfing, J. (2005). Discourse Theory: Achievements, Arguments, and Challenges. In Discourse Theory in European Politics (pp. 1–32). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230523364_1

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