Urban green inequality and its mismatches with human demand across neighborhoods in New York, Amsterdam, and Beijing

Abstract

Context: Urban green spaces (UGS) are not evenly distributed within cities, and some neighborhoods with high socio-environmental demands require more UGS than others. This raises two challenges: green inequality and demand-based inequity. However, comprehensive assessments of UGS inequality and inequity in cities worldwide are lacking. Objectives: We aim to develop a multi-level approach and supply-demand concept to assess UGS inequality and inequity across neighborhoods in international cities with contrasting geographical and socio-political contexts. Methods: We measured multi-level green accessibility and human demands based on Earth Observation and statistical data. UGS inequality and supply-demand mismatches were assessed by Gini coefficients, spatial cluster analysis, and statistical models. Results: We found that: (1) UGS inequality is primarily reflected by the public park per capita in three cities. New York has larger UGS inequality than Beijing and Amsterdam. (2) Demand-based inequity in terms of low supply and high demand is mainly scattered around the city center in three cities. Tree coverage does not align with environmental pressures (LST/PM2.5) in New York and Beijing. (3) Relations between green supplies and human demands vary by cities and indicators. A shorter distance to the nearest large park is associated with a higher proportion of the elderly and children in New York and Amsterdam. Conclusions: Our findings can inform UGS allocations to improve landscape sustainability in the neighborhoods with low green supply and high human demand, and to prioritize specific green metrics based on demand-oriented equity.