Protein–Ligand Interactions in Scarcity: The Stringent Response from Bacteria to Metazoa, and the Unanswered Questions

Abstract

The stringent response, originally identified in Escherichia coli as a signal that leads to reprogramming of gene expression under starvation or nutrient deprivation, is now recognized as ubiquitous in all bacteria, and also as part of a broader survival strategy in diverse, other stress conditions. Much of our insight into this phenomenon derives from the role of hyperphosphorylated guanosine derivatives (pppGpp, ppGpp, pGpp; guanosine penta-, tetra- and tri-phosphate, respectively) that are synthesized on starvation cues and act as messengers or alarmones. These molecules, collectively referred to here as (p)ppGpp, orchestrate a complex network of biochemical steps that eventually lead to the repression of stable RNA synthesis, growth, and cell division, while promoting amino acid biosynthesis, survival, persistence, and virulence. In this analytical review, we summarize the mechanism of the major signaling pathways in the stringent response, consisting of the synthesis of the (p)ppGpp, their interaction with RNA polymerase, and diverse factors of macromolecular biosynthesis, leading to differential inhibition and activation of specific promoters. We also briefly touch upon the recently reported stringent-like response in a few eukaryotes, which is a very disparate mechanism involving MESH1 (Metazoan SpoT Homolog 1), a cytosolic NADPH phosphatase. Lastly, using ppGpp as an example, we speculate on possible pathways of simultaneous evolution of alarmones and their multiple targets.