Gold-standard experiments to deter predators from attacking farm animals

Abstract

• We dismiss the long-held belief that randomized, controlled trials (RCTs) are impossible in wild ecosystems with working livestock. • Crossover designs reduce confounding variables between subjects and strengthen inference beyond the RCT, yet obstacles exist, which we describe qualitatively. • Non-lethal methods can be effective in preventing carnivore approaches and attacks on farm animals in fenced pastures or open rangelands. The relationship between approaches and attacks remains uncertain. • Lethal methods of predator control have been subjected to less robust study designs that suggest mixed results including increases in livestock losses. Non-lethals promise the elusive triple-win for wildlife, domestic animals, and livelihoods.