How Cells Deal with the Fluctuating Environment: Autophagy Regulation under Stress in Yeast and Mammalian Systems

Abstract

Eukaryotic cells frequently experience fluctuations of the external and internal environ-ments, such as changes in nutrient, energy and oxygen sources, and protein folding status, which, after reaching a particular threshold, become a type of stress. Cells develop several ways to deal with these various types of stress to maintain homeostasis and survival. Among the cellular survival mechanisms, autophagy is one of the most critical ways to mediate metabolic adaptation and clearance of damaged organelles. Autophagy is maintained at a basal level under normal growing con-ditions and gets stimulated by stress through different but connected mechanisms. In this review, we summarize the advances in understanding the autophagy regulation mechanisms under multi-ple types of stress including nutrient, energy, oxidative, and ER stress in both yeast and mammalian systems.