Labeling Theory

Abstract

This chapter extracts a current account of the research on the labeling theory of crime. Labeling theory argues that although deviant behavior may initially stem from various causes and conditions, once individuals are labeled as deviants, especially if they are labeled by criminal justice agents (which happens disproportionally to members of disadvantaged social groups), they may experience new problems that stem from the reactions of self and others to powerful, negative stereotypes (stigma) that are attached to deviant labels. These problems in turn increase the likelihood of deviant behavior becoming stable and chronic. Critics tended to dismiss the early work on labeling theory as unscientific. But, thanks to theoretical clarity and increased availability of longitudinal data, the past few decades have witnessed an accumulation of rigorous research on the criminogenic effects of labeling. There is by now a large volume of sophisticated research indicating that criminal justice labeling tends to increase, as opposed to decrease, future criminal behavior. Moreover, a part of this research provides some support for the major theoretical mechanisms, that is, the work has found criminal labeling to influence subsequent crime by weakening social bonds, undermining opportunities, and even by spurring the development of a deviant self-concept.