Normative and ethical foundations of ecological forestry in the United States

Abstract

Ecological forestry is the product of simultaneous evolutions of ecological science and conservation ethics over the past century. The early development of forest science and practice was strongly influenced by deterministic ecological models of succession in response to disturbance, and has been influenced more recently by ecosystem ecology principles that emphasize a higher level of complexity and uncertainty. Subjective societal values regarding forests have evolved as well, as principles of conservation ethics have been incorporated into forest policies and professional ethics. This intertwining of normative development with advances in ecosystem ecology provides a means by which forest managers and landowners can accomplish normative goals-personal as well as societal-in forest policies and practices.