Emotion, warnings, and the ethics of risk communication

Abstract

In constructing warning messages, analytic-cognitive factors have traditionally been stressed: having script and/or images of sufficient size and legibility which show dangerous consequences and communicate how they can be avoided and safety maintained. Emotional, or affective-cognitive, factors have rarely been considered in the design of warnings. Indeed, employing emotional appeals to persuade an audience is widely regarded to be unethical, smacking of manipulation. However, emotional factors have been employed with great effectiveness in advertising and marketing, sometimes to actually weaken legitimate safety concerns. Advertisements for dangerous products routinely ignore risk or if required present warning information in a form that is easily overlooked or disregarded. However, emerging research on decision-making has found that emotion plays a critical role in reaching optimal conclusions. It is now recognized that emotional or affective-cognitive factors can influence judgment processes in many ways. First, there are immediate emotions involved in the decision itself, and the emotions anticipated to flow from the decision. Second, there are emotions intrinsic to the decision that may be evoked by the message itself, and emotions incidental to the decision that nevertheless may influence the outcome. Third, emotion can influence the degree of rationality or mindfulness in the deliberation itself. Effective warnings must command attention, stimulate memory, and evoke emotion, as well as communicate consequences and safe behavior. In addition, to construct effective warnings, one must recognize the emotions that people are likely to experience in dangerous situations, and help them to understand those feelings and desires in a context of mindfully managing risk.