Predator Defense

Abstract

Most organisms are at risk from predation. For this reason, many species have evolved certain traits or strategies that confer different degrees of protection. Such traits and strategies can be physical (morphological), chemical, or behavioral and can be exhibited by both individuals and groups. As a result, predator defenses are very diverse and are widespread across the animal kingdom. However, several key strategies have evolved separately in multiple groups of animals. In order to classify and understand these defenses, we must first understand how animals fall prey to others. The process of predation can be thought of as a sequence, beginning with the detection of the prey by a potential predator, followed by its recognition as a suitable prey item, its subjugation and, finally, its consumption (Endler 1991). Animal defenses can intercept and disrupt this sequence at any stage, and many species possess defenses that act on several stages. From the prey’s perspective, defenses that interrupt the process at the earliest stages, i.e., before the subjugation stage, may be particularly valuable as they reduce the opportunity for injury or energy loss from fighting or escaping.