The Effects of Divorce and its Associated Stressors on Children and Adolescents

Abstract

Four factors were looked at to determine how children of divorce are affected by their parents divorce. The Family Environment Scale (FES) assessed family environment, Social Support Scale for children (SSSC) assessed social support, and the Life Events Checklist (LEC) assessed appraisal of the stressors shown to co-occur with divorce. The Behavioral Assessment Scale for Children, second edition (BASC-2; parent and self-reports) measured the criterion of this study, behavioral and emotional functioning. The sample consisted of 91 children and their parents from the Mankato area public schools. Hierarchical multiple regressions indicated a main effect of the appraisal of co-occurring stressors on participants’ emotional symptoms scores suggesting that the greater the amount of stress experienced the lower the emotional functioning regardless of divorce status. Results did not support the hypothesis that family environment, social support, and appraisal of stressors are protective factors. Nothing indicated that children who experienced divorce were any different than their peers who did not, suggesting that any child who has experienced high levels of stress will likely display functional difficulty. 2 Journal of Undergraduate Research at Minnesota State University, Mankato, Vol. 7 [2007], Art. 1 https://cornerstone.lib.mnsu.edu/jur/vol7/iss1/1 Professional Biographies Sarah K. Sifers completed her doctorate in clinical child psychology at the University of Kansas, subsequently completing a postdoctoral internship at Family Therapy Institute Midwest. She has ten years of experience working in a variety of therapeutic settings with children and their families. She is currently an assistant professor at Minnesota State University Mankato, where she teaches classes on child and adolescent development and clinical psychology. Her research interests include resilience in children, particularly family environment and spirituality, and ethics in psychology, specifically cultural competence and research ethics. She has presented and published several journal articles on these topics and a textbook, Abnormal Psychology. Aaron Brownlee just graduated with his bachelor’s degree in psychology, with honors, from Minnesota State University, Mankato; where he will be continuing his education in the clinical psychology master’s program. His research interests are in child resiliency, especially how movement may help to develop positive protective factors. He has presented at both undergraduate and professional conferences. 3 Brownlee: The Effects of Divorce and its Associated Stressors on Children a Published by Cornerstone: A Collection of Scholarly and Creative Works for Minnesota State University, Mankato, 2007 Since the first court ruling, divorce statistics have been on the rise. Divorce currently affects between 33 and 50 percent of American couples (Amato, 2003; Dykeman, 2003). The prevalence of divorce has lead to concern about the children who experience divorce. Many of these children are assumed to be users of illicit substances (Simons, Lin, Gordon, Conger, & Lorenz, 1999), have low academic achievement, be more likely to have a teen pregnancy, suffer from social isolation, and exhibit externalizing and internalizing behavior problems (Hipke, Wolchik, Sandler, & Braver, 2002). Additionally, there are assumptions of children with divorced parents being more likely to drop out of school or fall victim to adult mental health problems (Hipke et al, 2002) or be angry, demanding, noncompliant, lack self-regulation, have low social responsibility and diminished achievement (Hetherington & Stanley-Hagan, 1999; Nair & Murray, 2005). How, despite these observations by past researchers on the public’s opinion regarding children of divorce, do some overcome tragic traps in development and become well-adjusted contributors to society? To answer such questions what occurs during divorce must first be identified. The first thing to note is that divorce is not a single, static event, but a series of transitions that modify the lives of the children it touches (Hines, 1997). The greatest realizations to make when studying the effects of divorce is that the series of events experienced by the children is never the same experience as other children; and children never respond to their experiences the same way. Due to divorce and its various life-altering side effects being so closely related, it is important to observe these side effects to determine which factors pose the greatest difficulties in development. More specifically, society must identify what leads to difficulties of some children of divorce and the steps that can be taken to minimize such negative effects. However, not all 4 Journal of Undergraduate Research at Minnesota State University, Mankato, Vol. 7 [2007], Art. 1 https://cornerstone.lib.mnsu.edu/jur/vol7/iss1/1 children suffer the assumed negative outcomes of divorce (Hetherington, 1989; Hetherington & Stanley-Hagan; 1999; Kelly & Emery, 2003). In fact, it is estimated by Amato (2003) that between 75 and 90 percent of children who experience parental divorce lead lives that are indistinguishable from their peers. For a select few, divorce even seems to have benefited their development. These children appear to mature faster, are more independent, more responsible, and better able to make decisions than children in non-divorced families (Hines, 1997). Often the development of such characteristics fosters relationship development that has a beneficial effect on the stressed parent-child relationship. Should the parent-child relationship undergo a state of reparation, it often allows for an increase in the capability of maintaining other close relationships because the child is able to form a more secure attachment than might have been possible without such experience. This means that children have overcome the negative effects of their parents’ divorce and are now well-adjusted and will no longer be disadvantaged due to a situation over which they had little control. Specific variables past research indicate impact a child of divorce include: positive relationship with parents, global social support (Booth & Amato, 2001), and primary appraisal of the divorce (Amato, 2003). Family Environment There are four factors that appear to ease children’s transitions into the divorced family: family environment, social support, appraisal, and events that co-occur with divorce. First, positive family environment may foster the ability to cope with the divorce because it allows for an open, accepting environment where the child can explore and express his or her feelings about the divorce as well as other developmental transitions he or she may be experiencing (Hines, 1997). Support within the family system may be provided by parents, siblings, or other members 5 Brownlee: The Effects of Divorce and its Associated Stressors on Children a Published by Cornerstone: A Collection of Scholarly and Creative Works for Minnesota State University, Mankato, 2007 of the extended family. Family environment is defined in terms of the degree of personal growth, nature of interpersonal relationships, and organization of the family unit (Sifers, 1997). Moos and Moos (1994) defined these concepts further in their measure of family environment. Regarding family relationships, the components highlighted that are most relevant to understanding the impact of divorce are aspects of the family relationships: cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict. Cohesion is considered to consist of levels of commitment and support; expressiveness is family members’ direct ability to express their feelings; and conflict is the presence of openly expressed anger and interpersonal conflict (Moos & Moos, 1994). Dreman and Ronen-Eliav (1997) pointed out that higher levels of cohesion and adaptability should be positively related to adjustment. When expressiveness is allowed it provides an open environment for exploration (Hines, 1997), possibly fostering positive outlets for emotions experienced by children. Where as minimized conflict appears to be helpful in overcoming life transitions (Farber, Felner, & Primavera, 1985). Personal growth, independence and intellectual-cultural orientation appear to be particularly relevant to divorced families. Independence was defined as the ability to act assertively and be self-sufficient and intellectual-cultural orientation looks at involvement in intellectual and cultural activities (Moos & Moos, 1994). Independence, as social responsibility and freedom from the influence of others, were found to be factors of resilience (Chen & George, 2005). Youth who engaged in intellectual activities, such as attempting to determine how divorce had occurred, were shown to be more resilient than those who had not (Chen & George, 2005). The most relevant domain of system maintenance is exertion of control. Moos and Moos (1994) consider control to be a set of rules and procedures for the family unit. Children’s 6 Journal of Undergraduate Research at Minnesota State University, Mankato, Vol. 7 [2007], Art. 1 https://cornerstone.lib.mnsu.edu/jur/vol7/iss1/1 adjustment is related to positive parenting environment, which includes firm and consistent control (Chen & George, 2005). Past research indicates that higher levels of cohesion and adaptability are positively related to adjustment (Dreman & Ronan-Eliav, 1997). A sense of being able to express oneself and minimized conflict have been found to be helpful elements in the family to aid in overcoming such a life transition. Farber et al. (1985) stated that family cohesion and conflict proved to be the most salient predictors of adaptive outcomes; in families that were less cohesive and those that were more conflict-filled children reported higher levels of anxiety. The same study provided a unique note that individuals who sought out family members more frequently for support in dealing with trans