Evolution of the morphology and patterning of artificial embryos: Scaling the tricolour problem to the third dimension

Abstract

We present a model of three-dimensional artificial embryogenesis in which a multicellular embryo develops controlled by a continuous regulatory network encoded in a linear genome. Development takes place in a continuous space, with spherical cells of variable size, and is controlled by simulated physics. We apply a genetic algorithm to the problem of the simultaneous evolution of morphology and patterning into colour stripes and demonstrate how the system achieves the task by exploiting physical forces and using self-generated morphogen gradients. We observe a high degree of robustness to damage in evolved individuals and explore the limits of the system using more complex variations of the problem. We find that the system remains highly evolvable despite the increased complexity of three-dimensional space and the flexible coding of the genome requiring from evolution to invent all necessary morphogens and transcription factors. © 2011 Springer-Verlag.