Urban Resources and Their Linkage to Political Agendas for Armed Groups in Cities

Abstract

Rapid urbanisation in countries undergoing or recovering from armed conflict has imposed severe strain on public services and governance. It has also been accompanied by increasing policy and academic concern about the vulnerability of cities to armed conflict. But even when major armed clashes between conflict parties concentrate in rural areas or towns, large cities play a critical but often less visible role: that of hubs for illicit economies supporting the political agendas of armed groups such as militias and insurgents. Urbanisation has reinforced the economic functions of cities for non-state armed groups willing to exploit the rising demand for services, amid weak state governance. This article argues that cities located near armed conflicts contain economic opportunities and incentives, linked to scarce public services amid rising populations, that are attractive to armed groups for their material and political value. These resources also provide incentives for the use of violence. The article develops the concept of urban resources, defined as sources of income for armed groups linked to the agglomeration of people and the scarcity of essential goods and services (housing, water, security provision etc.) resulting from inefficient urban governance. It uses the case studies of Mogadishu, in Somalia, and Karachi, in Pakistan. The article identifies two main categories of urban resources for armed groups: rents linked to the concentration of people within areas of weak state presence (extortion, charges for security services) and fixed assets linked to the growing demand for land and housing. It then examines the political benefits that have accompanied the exploitation of these resources.