Afterword: The New Pessimism in Twenty-First-Century World Politics

Abstract

Pessimism and optimism in international relations theory have reflected the dominance of state-centrism in world politics. Competing paradigms have taken for granted that the core problematics of concern the consolidation of nation-states domestically and their interaction in "inter-national" relations, seen as two-level games. Pessimism stemmed from international war, domestic vulnerability and interstate economic competition; optimism from liberal pacification, economic interdependence and global governance. However, this perception of world politics is increasingly outdated. Since the mid-to-late 20 th century a dialectic of globalization and fragmentation has been leading to a complex restructuring of the system, above the state, below the state and cutting across states, from financial crisis to the "intangible economy" to security and climate change. The new pessimism-and optimism-are rooted in this transformation. 2