Development of international cooperation in oceanography:Incentives from science, services, economy and security

Abstract

The ocean acts as the great integrator of the Planet through transport, redistribution and even recycling of heat, freshwater, chemicals, organisms and other organic material, and much if not most material and waste resulting from human activities. The role of the ocean is acknowledged in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, UNCLOS. This constitutes “a comprehensive regime dealing with all matters relating to the law of the sea bearing in mind that the problems of ocean space are closely related and need be considered as a whole”. Marine research is addressed in a separate part of the Law of the Sea, part xiii. This includes stipulations on international cooperation, which should stimulate the ocean science community, just as the fact of a separate chapter in a major international law ought to raise the status of oceanography in Governments. However, UNCLOS entered into force at the end of 1994 and international cooperation in ocean research and observations has been in progressive development for about 150 years. Its success is well demonstrated through global programmes addressing many issues of great importance for environment, development, economy, services and security. The results together with related technological developments concern transport and maritime safety, fisheries, mariculture and food security, climate and global change, infrastructure and coastal protection, warning systems for tsunamis and other hazards from the ocean, forecasting of climate-related phenomena like El Nino and the Indian Ocean Monsoon, marine pollution and related effects, availability and economy of non-living marine resources. Some highlights of this international cooperation and the associated institutional developments are presented. The main aim of the paper is to elucidate incentives and their implications for the development of the cooperation. These are related to scientific necessity in view of the ocean dynamics as well as to the dependence of human development and society on the ocean, coastal areas, the marine environment as a whole and its resources. Apart from the scientific need these incentives concern the issues referred to, together with sustainable development, including of the ocean economy. By addressing these and other problems in a fairly comprehensive way oceanography and ocean observations are providing many services and opportunities to society. However, oceanography is still fragmented and not acknowledged in society or Governments in the same way as hydrology and meteorology, and achieving sustained ocean observations are facing problems. Some ideas on reasons for this situation and the relatively weak visibility and status of oceanography in Governments and social perception in general are discussed.