The Alkylphenols Nonylphenol and Octylphenol in Food Contact Materials and Household Items: Exposure and Health Risk Considerations

Abstract

The alkylphenols (APs) nonylphenol (NP) and octylphenol (OP) are not approved for use in food contact materials (FCM) in Europe or the United States, however, tris(nonylphenyl)phosphite (TNPP) is used as a stabilizer and antioxidant in a variety of food contact plastics, including polyvinyl chloride- and linear low-density polyethylene films, polystyrene, high-impact polystyrene, and rubber-based products. It is not known if the NP detected in foods is a trace contaminant of TNPP formulations, is from TNPP breakdown in FCMs, or is derived from food contact with NP-laden biosolids that are sometimes used as fertilizers. Both NP and OP have been identified in indoor air, and NP has been detected in household items and house dust. NP and OP, as well as TNPP, are weakly estrogenic. Adverse effects on the target organs (liver, kidney, and heart), immune and neurological function, the developing reproductive system, and metabolic pathways related to obesity and diabetes risk, have been observed in laboratory animals or cell culture systems exposed to NP or OP. While there is some evidence of NP acting as a tumor promoter in animal models (lung and mammary gland), induction of apoptosis has been observed in lung-, gastric-, and bone-tumor cell lines, and in Sertoli cells. Additional research is needed to determine sources of NP and OP in FCMs in the global food supply, identify factors that affect migration of these APs from food packaging to foodstuffs, and better define exposure to human populations.