A Large Carnivore Among People and Livestock: The Common Leopard

Abstract

Mitigation of conflicts between humans and large carnivores is a major challenge in wildlife conservation. Habitat loss and depletion of wild prey, as well as easy availability of livestock, are expected to increase livestock depredation and, in turn, emphasise conflicts. We assessed the interactions between leopards, Panthera pardus, and humans in three study areas that all lie on a densely inhabited Himalayan part of Pakistan (c. 328 km2): a protected, largely forested area (Ayubia National Park and its surroundings, ANP) and two areas with a greater level of anthropogenic activities and lower extent of forest cover (Murree, MF; Transitional Area, TA). To suggest potential measures to mitigate the negative impacts of leopards on human activities - and vice versa - a multi-level approach was used to identify patterns and mechanisms of conflict. This approach looked at behavioural ecology, remote sensing and socioeconomics aspects. Large wild prey (i.e. ungulates) are virtually absent from the areas of study, but for very rare wild BOAR Sus scrofa and goral Nemorhaedus goral. Therefore, livestock dominated the diet of leopards, with no significant differences between areas, nor between seasons, indicating a constant availability of domestic prey throughout the year. In two decades, the forest coverage of these areas has decreased (ANP: c. 15% loss; MF: c. 4% loss; TA: c. 19% loss), with an increase in human settlements and agricultural land. We also investigated the socioeconomic implications of human-leopard coexistence: c. 20% of interviewed households in ANP (n = 593) suffered livestock depredation by leopards, whereas 9% of 423 households suffered it in MF/TA (n = 423). In 2005-2015, about 2 leopard attacks on humans/year were recorded, half of which were lethal, whereas c. 6 leopards/year were killed in retaliation. Rapid habitat loss and depletion of wild prey are severe threats to the conservation of the common leopard in our areas of study. The restoration and protection of the forest and that of a diverse prey assembly have to be considered as a priority to favour the conservation status of leopards. However, these measures should be urgently integrated in parallel to improved practices of livestock management. We suggest that only the implementation of these actions, synergistically, i.e. habitat protection, prey restoration and better practices of livestock management, would lead to mitigating human-leopard conflict and increasing the long-term survival of this large predator.